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iiiiiii 







SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME. 



FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ESTABUSHMENT 
OF THE EMPIRE, 



By WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D. 



WITH A CONTINUATION TO A.D. 476. 
By EUGENE LAWRENCE, A.M. 




JJUusttateti i)s Bnflrabfnus on SlfeDiti. - c^ 




NEW YORK : 
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

Franklin Square. 
1865. 



k)-l ■ 



THE STUDENT'S HISTORIES. 



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NOTICE. 



The present History has been drawn up chiefly for 
the lower forms in schools, at the request of several 
teachers, and is intended to range with the author's 
Smaller History of Greece. It will be followed by a 
similar History of England. The author is indebted in 
this work to several of the more important articles upon 
Roman history in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
Biography. 

The Table of Contents presents a full analysis of the 
work, and has been so arranged that the teacher can 
frame from it questions for the examination of his class, 
the answers to which wdll be found in the correspond- 
ing pages of the volume. 

The restoration of the Forum has been designed by 
Mr. P. W. Justyne. 

W. S. 



3^^ 







Temple of Janus. (From a Coin.) 




Juliu3 Csesas. 

CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Geogeapht of Italy — Eably Inhabitants. 



Page 

Position of Italy 1 

Its boundaries 1 

Its two Divisions 1 

L Gallia Cisalpina 2 

Liguria '. 2 

Yenetia 2 

II. Italia, properly so called. 2 

Etruria 2 

Umbria 2 

Picenum 2 

SabinL 3 

Marsi 3 

Peligni 3 

Vestini 3 

Marrucini 3 

Frentani 3 

Latium : its two senses 3 

The Campagna 3 

The Pontine Marshes 4 

Campania 4 

Bay of Naples 4 

Samnium 4 



Page 

Apulia 4 

Calabria 4 

Lucania 4 

Bruttii 4 

Fertility of Italy 5 

Its productions 5 

Its inhabitants 5 

I. Italians proper 5 

1. Latins 5 

2. Umbro-SabeUians 5 

II. lapygians 5 

ni. Etruscans 5 

Their name 5 

Their language 5 

Their origin 5 

Their two confederacies. . 6 

1. North of the Po 6 

2. South of the Apen- 

nines 6 

Foreign races — 

IV. Greeks 6 

Gauls 6 



CHAPTER II. 

The Fiest Foub Kings of Rome. b.c. 753-616. 



Position of Pvome 7 

Its inhabitants 7 

I.Latins 7 

2. Sabines 7 

3. Etruscans 7 

Remarks on early Roman his- 
tory 8 

Legend of yEneas 8 

Legend of Ascanius 8 

Foundation of Alba Longa ... 8 



Legend of Rhea Silvia 8 

Birth of Romulus and Remus. . 8 

Their recognition by Numitor 9 

753. Foundation of Rome 9 

Roma Quadrata 9 

Pomcerium 9 

Death of Remus 10 

753-716. Reign of Romulus 9 

Asylum 10 

Rape of Sabines 10 



CONTENTS. 



B,c. Page 

War with Sabines 10 

Tarpeia 10 

Sabine women 10 

Joint reign of Romulus 

and Titus Tatias 11 

Deatli of Titus Tatius. . 11 

Sole reign of Komulus . . 11 

Death of Komulus 11 

Institutions ascribed to 

Romulus 12 

Patricians & Clients 12 
Three tribes — Ram- 
nes, Titles, Lu- 

ceres 12 

Thirty Curiae 12 

Three HundredGen- 

tes 12 

Comitia Curiata 12 

The Senate 12 

The Army 12 

71G-6T3. Reign of Numa Pompilius 12 
Institutions ascribed to 

Numa Pompilius 12 

Pontiffs 12 

Augurs 13 



B.C. Page 

J Flamens 13 

' Vestal Vii'gins 13 

7. Salii 13 

, Temple of Janus ... 13 

673-641. Reign of Tullus Hostilius 13 

War with Alba Longa. . 13 
Battle of the Horatii and 

Curiatii 13 

War with the Etruscans 14 
Punishment of Mettius 
Fuffetius, Dictator of 

Alba Longa 14 

Destruction ofAlbaLonga 14 
Removal of its inhabit- 
ants to Rome 14 

^ Origin of the Roman 

Plebs 14 

Death of Tullus Hostilius 14 

640-616. Reign of Ancus Marcius. . 14 

War with the Latins. . . 14 

Increase of the Plebs. . . 15 

"«^Ostia 15 

> Janiculum 15 

. \ Pons Sublicius 15 

Death of Ancus Marcius 15 



CHAPTER III. 

The Last Theee Kings of Rome, and the Establishment of the Republic 

DOWN TO THE BaTTLE OF THE LaKE ReGILLUS. B.C. 016-498. 

616-578. Reign of TarquiniusPriscus 

His early histoiy 

His removal to Rome . . . 

Becomes king 

His wars 

The Cloacae 

Circus Maximus 

Increase of the Senate. . 
Increase of the Equites 

Attus Navius 

Increase of the Vestal 

Virgins 

Early history of Servius 

Tullius 

Death of Tarquinius 

Priscus 

578-634. Reign of Servius Tullius., 

I. Reform of the Roman 

Constitution 

1. Division of the Ro- 

man territory into 
Thirty Tribes.... 

2. Comitia Centuriata 

Census 

Five Classes 

The Equites 

Number of the Cen- 
turies 



16 


Three sovereign as- 


16 


semblies —Comitia 


16 


Centuriata, Comi- 


16 


tia Curiata, Comi- 


16 


tia Tributa ... 


16 


II. Increase of the city : 


17 


walls of Servius 


17 


Tullius 


17 


III. Alliance with the 


17 


Latins 




Death of Servius Tul- 


17 


lius 




534-510. Reign of Tarquinius Su- 


17 


perbus 




His tyranny 


18 


His alliance with the 


18 


Latins 




His war with the Vol- 


18 


scians 




Foundation of the temple 




on the Capitoline Hill 


18 


The Sibylline books.... 


18 


Legend of the Sibyl 


18 


Capture of Gabii 


19 


King's sons and Brutus 


19 


■ sent to consult the or- 




acle at Delphi 


19 


Lucretia 



23 



CONTENTS. 



ii.o. Page 
Expulsion of the Tar- 
quins 25 

509. Establishment of the Republic 25 

The Consuls 25 

First attempt to restore the 

Tarquins 25 

Execution of the sons of 

Brutus 25 

War of the Etruscans with 

Rome 26 

Death of Brutus 26 

Defeat of the Etruscans. . 26 

Valerius Publicola 26 



B.C. Page 

Dedication of the Capitoline 

Temple by M. Horatius 26 

50S. Second attempt to restore the 

Tarquins 26 

Lars Porsena 26 

Horatius Codes 26 

Mucins Scsevola 27 

Clcelia 27 

498. Third attempt to restore the 

Tarquins 28 

War with the Latins 28 

Battle of the Lake Regillus 28 

496. Death of Tarquinius Superbus 28 



CHAPTER IV. 

Feom the Battle of the Lake Regii.lus to the Decemvieate. 
B.C. 498-451. 



Struggles between the Patri- 

cians and Plebeians 

Ascendency of the Patricians . . 

Sufferings of the Plebeians 

Law of debtor and creditor 

Ager Publicus 

Oiaject of the Plebeians to ob- 
tain a .share in the political 
power and in the public 

land 

494. Secession to the Sacred Mount 
Fable of Menenius Agrippa 



Institution of the Tribunes 

ofthePlebs 31 

486. Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius. . SI 

Foreign Avars 32 

488. I. Coriolanus and the Vol- 

scians 82 

477. n. The Fabia Gens and the 

Veien tines 33 

458. IlL Cincinnatus and the 

^quian.« 34 

League between the Romans, 
Latins, and Hernicans 35 



CHAPTER V. 

The Decemvieate. b.c. 451-449. 



471. Publilian Law, transferring the 
election of the Tribunes from 
the Comitia of Centuries to 
those of the Tribes 36 

462. Proposal of the Tribune Teren- 
tilius Arsa for the appoint- 
ment of Decemviri 37 

460. Seizure of the Capitol by Her- 

donius the Sabine 37 

454. Appointment of three Commis- 
sioners to visit Greece 37 

452. Their return to Rome 37 

451. Appointment of the Decemviri 37 
The Ten Tables 37 

450. New Decemviri appointed 37 



Their tyranny 38 

Tavo new Tables added, mak- 
ing twelve in all 38 

• The Decemviri continue in office 38 

Death of Sicinius Dentatus . . 38 

Death of Virginia 39 

Second secession to the Sacred 

Mount 39 

Resignation of the Decem- 
virs 39 

Election of ten Tribunes. . 40 

Valerian and Horatian Laws. . 40 

Death of Appius Claudius, ... 40 

The Twelve Tables 40 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Fkom the Decemyirate to the Capture of Rome bt the Gauls. 
B.O. 448-390. 



445. Third secession to the Sacred 

Mount 

Lex Canuleia for inter- 
marriage between the 

two orders 

Institution of Military Tri- 
bunes with consular 

powers 

443. Institution of the Censorship. . 
421. Qusestorship thrown open to the 

Plebeians 

440. Famine at Rome 

Death of Sp. Mfslius 

Foreign wars 

Koman colonies. 



42 



B.O. Page 

War with the Etruscans 43 

437. Spolia Opima won by A. Cor- 
nelius Cossus 43 

426. Capture and destruction of Fi- 

dense 43 

403. Commencement of siege of Veii 43 

Tale of the Alban Lake 43 

396. Appointment of Camillus as 

Dictator 43 

Capture of Veii 44 

394. War with Falerii 44 

Tale of the Schoolmaster... . 44 

Unpopularity of Camillus 44 

391. He goes into exile 44 



CHAPTER VII. 

From the Capttire of Rome by the Gauls to the Final Union of the 
Two Orders, b.c. 390-36T. 



The Gauls, or Celts 

391. Attack of Clusium by the Se- 



Roman embassadors sent to 

Clusium 

They take part in the fight 

against the Senones 

The Senones march upon Rome 

390. Battle of the Allia 

Destruction of Rome 

Siege of the Capitol 

Legend of M. Manlius 

Appointment of Camillus as 

Dictator 

He delivers Rome from the 

Gauls 

Rebuilding of the city 

Further Gallic wars 

361. Legend of T. Manlius Tor- 

quatus 

349. Legend of M. Valerius Corvus 



45 


385. 




384. 


45 




45 


376. 


45 




46 


367. 


46 


366. 


46 




46 


356. 


47 


?,61. 




336. 


47 


300. 


47 




47 




48 




48 


339. 


48 


286 



Distress at Rome 48 

M. Manlius comes forward as a 

patron of the poor 48 

His fate 49 

Licinian Rogations proposed. . 49 
Violent opposition of the Pa- 
tricians 50 

Licinian Rogations passed 50 

L. Sextius first Plebeian Consul 50 

Institution of the Prsetorship. . 50 

First Plebeian Dictator. 51 

First Plebeian Censor 51 

First Plebeian Praetor 51 

Lex Ogulnia, increasing the 
number of the Pontiffs and 
Augurs, and, enacting that 
a certain number of them 
should be taken from the 

Plebeians 51 

Publilian Laws 51 

Lex Hortensia 51 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Feom the Licinian Rogations to tub end op the Samnitb Waes 
B.C. 367-290. 



15. c. Page 

362. Pestilence at Rome 52 

Death of Camillus 52 

Tale of M. (Jurtius 53 

TheSamnites 53 

Their history 53 

Division into four tribes 53 

ConquerCampaniaandLucania 53 
Samnites of the Apennines at- 
tack the Sidicmi 53 

Campanians assist the Sidicini 53 
They are defeated by the Sam- 
nites 53 

They solicit the assistance of 

Rome 53 

343-341. First Samnite War 54 

Battle of Mount Gaurus 54 

Peace concluded 54 

Reasons for the conclu- 
sion of peace 54 

340-33S. The Latin Wae 54 

The ai-mies meet near 

Mount Vesuvius 55 

Tale of Torquatus 55 

Decisive battle 55 

Self-sacrifice of Decius. . 55 

Capture of Latin towns 56 

Conclusion of the war. . . 56 
329. Conquest of the Volscian town 

of Pm'ernum 56 

Origin f f the Second Samnite 

War 56 

327. The Romans attack Palseopolis 

and Neapolis 56 



; ^-c. Page 

326-304. Second Samnite Wak.. . . 57 

First Period. 
I Roman arms successful 57 

I 325. Quarrel between L. Pa- 

pirius Dictator and Q. 
Fabius, his master of 

the horse 57 

321-315. Second Period. 

Success of the Samnites 57 
321. Defeat of the Romans at 

the Caudine Forks by 

C. Pontius 58 

Ignominious treaty re- 
jected by the Romans 58 
314-304. Third Period. 

Success of the Romans. . 

311. War with the Etruscans 

Defeat of the Etruscans 

Defeat of the Samnites . . 

804. Peace with Rome 

300. Conquests of Rome in Central 

Italy 

Coalition of Etruscans, Umbri- 
ans, and Samnites against 

Rome 

298-290. Thied Samnite War. . . . 
295. Decisive battle of Sen- 

tinum 59 

Self-sacrifice of • the 

younger Decius 59 

292. C. Pontius taken pris- 

oner and put to death 59 



59 



CHAPTER IX. 



From the Conclusion of the Samnite 
B.C. 290- 
283. War with the Etruscans and 

Gauls 60 

Battle of the Lake Vadimo 60 

282. State of Magna Grtecia CO 

The Romans assist Thurii 60 

Their fleet is attacked by the 

Tarentines 61 

Roman embassy to Tarentum 61 
281. War declared against the Ta- 
rentines 61 

They apply for aid to Pyrrhus 61 

Pyrrhus arrives in Italy 02 



War to the Subjugation op Italy. 

-265. 

!80. His first campaign against the 

Romans 62 

Battle of Heraclea 62 

Remarks of Pyrrhus on the 

victoiy 62 

He attempts to make peace 

with Rome 62 

Failure of his minister Cineas 63 
He marches upon Rome and 

arrives at Prseneste 63 

Retires into winter quarters at 

Tarentum 63 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



B,o. J^age 

Embassy of Fabricius 63 

279. Second campaign of Pyrrhiis. . 64 

Battle of Asculum 64 

278. Treachery of the physician of 

Pyrrhiis 64 

Truce with Rome 64 

Pyrrhus crosses over into Sicily 64 

276. He returns to Italy 64 

274. Defeat of Pyrrhus 65 

He returns to Greece 65 

272. Subjugation of Tarentum C5 

Conquest of Italy 65 

273. Embassy of Ptolemy Philadel- 

phiis to Rome 65 

Three classes of Italian popu- 
lation : 
I. Oives Romani, or Roman 

Citizens 66 



B.C. Page 

1. Of the Thirty -three 

tribes 66 

2. Of the Roman Col- 

onies 66 

3. Of the Municipal 

Towns 66 

n. Nomen Latinum, or the 

Latin name 66 

III. Socii, or Allies 66 

312. Censorship of Appins Claudius 67 
His dangerous innovation as to 

the Freedmen 67 

304. Repealed in the Censorship of 
Q. Fabiiis Maximus and P. 

Decius Mus 67 

312. The Appian Way 67 

The Appian Aqueduct 67 

Cn. Flavius 67 



CHAPTER X. 

The Fiest Punic Wak. b.c 264-241. 



814. Foundation of Carthage 68 

Its empire 68 

Its government 68 

Its army 68 

Its foreign conquests 68 

Conquest of Messana by the 

Mamertini 69 

Hiero attacks the Mamertini. . 69 
They apply for assistance to 

Rome 69 

264. The Consul Ap. Claudius crosses 

over to Sicily to aid them ... 70 
He defeats the forces of Syra- 
cuse and Carthage 70 

263. Hiero makes peace with the 

Romans 70 

262. Capture of Agrigentum by the 

Romans 70 

260. The Romans build a fleet 70 

Naval victory of the Consul 

Duilius 71 

256. The Romans invade Africa... . 72 

Their naval victory 72 

Brilliant success of Regulus in 

Africa 72 

The Carthaginians sue in vain 

for peace 72 

255. Arrival of the Lacedaemonian 

Xanthippus 72 



He restores confidence to the 
Carthaginians 73 

Defeat and capture of Regulus 73 

Destruction of the Roman fleet 
by a storm 73 

The Romans build another 

fleet 

253. Again destroyed by a storm. 



afP 



73 
73 
73 
260. Victory of Metellus a^ Panor- 

mus 73 

Embassy of the Carthaginians 

to Rome 73 

Heroic conduct of Regulus. ... 74 

250. Siege of Lilybseum 74 

249. Defeat of the Consul Claudius 

at sea 75 

Destruction of the Roman fleet 

a third time .- 75 

247. Appointment of Hamilcar Bar- 
ca to the Carthaginian com- 
mand 75 

He intrenches himself on 
Mount Hercte, near Panor- 

mus 75 

He removes zo Mount Eryx. . . 75 
241. Victory off the ^gatian Islands 76 

Peace with Carthage 76 

End of the War 76 



CONTENTS. 



xui 



CHAPTER XL 

Events between the First and Second Punic Wars, 
Page 



240-238. War of the Mercenaries 

with Carthage 77 

She owes her safety to Hamil- 

car 77 

238. The Romans-seize Sardinia and 

Corsica 77 

Hamilcar goes to Spain 78 

235. Temple of Janus closed 78 

Completion of the Thirty-five 

Roman Tribes 78 

229. Illteian War 78 

Conquest of Teuta, queen of 

thelllyrians 78 

228. Honors paid to the Romans in 

the Grecian cities 78 

232. Agrarian law of the Tribune 

Flaminius 78 

225. Gallic War 78 

Defeat of the Gauls at Tela- 

mon in Etruria 79 

224 Conquest of the Boii 79 



B.O. 240-219. 

B.C. Fi 

223. The Romans cross the Po. . . 

222. Conquest of the Insubres. . . 

Marcellus wins the Spolia 

Opima 

220, The Via Flaminia from Rome 

to Ariminum 

218. Foundation of Colonies at Pla- 

centia and Cremona 

219. Second Illyrian War 

235. Hamilcar in Spain 

Oath of Hannibal 

229. Death of Hamilcar 

Hasdrubal succeeds him in the 

command 

227. Treaty with Rome 

221. Death of Hasdrubal 

Hannibal succeeds him in the 

command 

219. Siege of Saguntum 

Its capture 

War declared against Carthage 



80 



80 



80 



The Second Ptjnio War: 



CHAPTER XII. 

First Period, down to the Battle of Cannes. 
B.C. 218-216. 



218, Preparations of Hannibal 82 

His march to the Rhone 83 

Arrival of the Consul Scipio at 

Massilia 83 

Hannibal crosses the Rhone. . . 83 
Scipio sends his brother to 

Spain, and returns himself 

to Italy 83 

Hannibal crosses the Alps, , . . 83 

Skirmish on the Ticinus 84 

Battle of the Trebia 84 

Defeat of the Romans 84 

217, Hannibal's march through 

Etruria 86 

Battle of the Lake Trasimenus 86 



Great defeat of the Romans. . . 

Q. Fabius Maximus appointed 
Dictator 

His policy 

Rashness of Minucius, the Mas- 
ter of the Horse 

216. Great preparations of the Ro- 
mans 

Battle of Cannae 

Great defeat of the Romans. . . 

Revolt of Southern Italy 

Hannibal winters at Capua. . . 

Note on Hannibal's passage 
across the Alps 



87 



88 



90 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Second PunRj War: Second Period, from the Revolt of Capua to the 
Battle of the Metaurus. b.o. 215-207. 
War in Sicily — 



215, Plan of the War 

Hannibal's repulse before Nola 

214. He attempts in vain to surprise 
Tarentum 

213, He obtains possession of Ta- 
rentum 93 



92 



216. 



214. 



Death of Hiero 93 

Succession of Hieronymus.. 93 

His assassination 93 

Arrival of Marcellus in Sicily 98 

He takes Leontini 93 



XIV 



CONTENTS. 



B.C. Page 

He lays siege to Syracuse. . . 93 

Defended by Archimedes 93 

212, Capture of Syracuse 94 

War in Spain— 
212. Capture and death of the two 

Scipios 95 

Siege of Capua 95 

211. Hannibal marches upon Rome 95 

Is compelled to retreat 96 

The Romans recover Capua. . . 96 



B.C. Page 

Punishment of its inhabitants 93 

209. The Romans recover Tarentum 96 

208. Defeat and death of Marcellus 97 

207. Hasdrubal marches into Italy 97 

He besieges Placentia 97 

March of the Consul Nero to 
join his colleague Livius in 

Umbria 97 

Battle of the Metaurus 98 

Defeat and death of Hasdrubal 98 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Second Punio Wae: Third Period, prom the Battle op the Metatteus to 
THE Conclusion of the War. b.c. 206-201, 



Character and early life of 

Scipio 99 

210. He is elected Proconsul for 

Spain 100 

He takes New Carthage 100 

206. He subdues Spain 101 

He crosses over into Africa 

and visits Syphax 101 

He returns to Rome 102 

205, His Consulship 102 

He prepares to invade Africa 102 
His project is opposed by Fa- 

bius and others 102 



204. He arrives in Africa 103 

203. He defeats the Carthaginians 

and Syphax 103 

Masinissa and Sophonisba... . 103 
The Carthaginians recall 

Hannibal 104 

202. Battle of Zama, and defeat of 

Hannibal 104 

Terms of peace 105 

201. Conclusion of the war 105 

Triumph of Scipio 105 



CHAPTER XV. 

Wars in the East: the Macedonian, Syrian, and Galatian WAEa 
B.C. 214-188. 



State of the East.., 




106 




He assists the Cartha- 




Syria 




106 




ginians at the battle 




Pontus 




106 
106 




of Zama 


108 


Galatia 


His conduct in Greece 


108 


Pergamus 





106 


200-196. Second Macedonian War— 


Egypt 




107 


200. 


First campaign : the 




state of Greece 




107 




Consul Galba 


108 






107 
107 


199. 


Second campaign: the 
Consul Villius 




Achsean League. 




109 


^tolian League. 




107 


198. 


Third campaign: the 




Rhodes 




107 




Consul Flaraininus. . 


109 


Sparta 




107 


197. 


Battle of Cynoscephalse 


109 


214-205. First Macedonian War— 


196. 


Declaration of Grecian 




Its indecisive 


character 


108 




independence at the 




211. Treaty of the Romans 






Isthmian Games. . . . 


109 


with the 


jEtolian 




191-190. 


Syrian War— 




League . . . 




108 




Antiochus the Third.. . 


110 


20.5. Conclusion of the war 


108 




Intrigues of the .(Eto- 




Philip's hostile acts... . 


lOS 




lians in Greece 


110 



CONTENTS. 



B.O. Page 

They invite Antiochus 

to Greece 110 

Hannibal expelled from 

Carthage 110 

He arrives in Syria.. . . 110 
His advice to Antiochus 110 
192 Antiochus crosses over 

to Greece 110 

191. The Romans defeat him 

at Thermopylae 110 

He returns to Asia 110 

190. The Romans invade 

Asia Ill 

Battle of Magnesia. . . . Ill 
Defeat of Antiochus by 
Scipio Asiaticus Ill 



B.O. Page 

Terms of peace Ill 

Hannibal iiies to Pru- 
sias, king of Bithyn- 

ia Ill 

189. ^TOLiAN Wak— 

Fulvius takes Ambracia. . . Ill 

Terms of peace Ill 

189. Galatian War — 

Manlius attacks the Gala- 
tians without the author- 
ity of the Senate or the 

People ;. 112 

187. He returns to Rome 112 

Effects of the Eastern con- 
quests upon the Roman 
character 112 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Waes in the West : the Gallic, Ligurian, and Spanish Wars. 
B.C. 200-175. 



200. The Gallic War— 

The Gauls take Placentia 

and lay siege to Cremona 

Conquest of the Insubres 

and Cenomani 

191. Conquest of the Boii 

190. Colony founded at Bononia . . 

180. Via Emilia 

200. The Ligurian War— 

Continued with intermis- 
sions for nearly SO years 

Character of the war 

198. Two Provinces formed in 
Spain 



195. The Spanish War— 

The Consul M. Porcius Catd 

sent into Spain 114 

His success 115 

The Spaniards again take 

up arms 115 

179. The war brought to a con- 
clusion by Tib. Sempro- 

nius Gracchus 115 

178. The Istrian War 115 

177-175, The Sardinian and 

Coesioan War 115 



CHAPTER XVII. 

The Roman Constitution and Army. 



Eeview of the histoiy of the 
Roman Constitution. 

Political equality of the Patri- 
cians and Plebeians 

I. The Magistrates — 

The Lex Annalis 

1. The Qufestors 

2. The^diles 

3. The Prajtors 

4. The Consuls 

5. The Dictators 

6. The Censors 

(a) The Census 

0) Control over the 
morals of the 

citizens 

(c) Administration 



119 



of the finances 
of the state. . . 119 
n. The Senate — 

Its number 119 

Its mode of Election 119 

Its power and duties 119 

III. The Popular Assemblies— 

1. The Comitia Curiata. . 120 

2. The Comitia Centuri- 
ata : change in its con- 
stitution 1 20 

3. The Comitia Tributa. . 121 

The Tribunes 121 

The Plebiscita 121 

IV. Finances — 

Tributum 121 

Vectigalia 121 



CONTENTS. 



B,c. Page 

V. The Army — 

Number of the Legion. . . 122 

1. First Penod— Servius 

Tiillius 122 

2. Second Period — The 

Great Latin War, 

B.C. 340 122 

Hastati 122 

Principes 122 

Triarii 122 

RorariiandAccensi 123 

3. Third Period— During 

the wars of the youn- 
ger Scipio 123 

Tvro legions assign- 
ed to each Consul 123 



Page 
Division of the le- 
gion 123 

The Maniples 123 

The Cohorts 123 

The Tribuni Mili- 

tum 123 

The Horse-soldiers 123 
Infantry of the So- 

cii 123 

4. Fourth Period — From 
the times of the Grac- 
chi to the downfall of 

the Republic 123 

Changes introduced 

by Marius 124 

Triumphs 124 



CHAPTEE XVIII. 

Internal History of Rome during the Macedonian and Syrian Wars. 
Cato and Scipio. 



Effect of the Roman conquests 

in the East 

Debasement of the Roman 

character 

192. Infamous conduct of L. Fla- 

mininus 

186. Worship of Bacchus 

Gladiatorial exhibitions 

Rise of the new nobilit}' 

181. Law against bribery 

Decay of the peasant proprie- 
tors 

M. Porcius Cato 

234. His birth 

His eai'ly life 

204. His Qusestorship 

198. His Praetorship 

195. His Consulship 



126 



12T 
127 
127 
127 

127 

128 
128 
128 
128 
129 
129 
129 



Repeal of the Oppian Law 130 
191. Cato serves in the battle of 

Thermopylae 130 

Prosecution of the two Scipios 130 
Haughty conduct of Scipio Af- 

ricanus 130 

Condemnation of Scipio Asi- 

aticus 130 

Prosecution of Scipio Africa- 

nus 130 

He leaves Rome 131 

183. His death 131 

Death of Hannibal 132 

184. Censorehip of Cato 132 

He studies Greek in his old 

age 132 

His character 133 



CHAPTER XIX. 

The Third Macedonian, Achjjan, and Third Punic Wars. b.c. 179-146. 



179, Death of Philip and accession 

of Perseus 134 

172. Murder of Eumenes, king of 

Pergamus 135 

171-168. Third Macedonian War— 

168. Battle of Pydna 135 

Defeat of Perseus by L. 

^milius Paullus 135 

167. ^milius Paullus punishes the 

Epirotes 135 

His triumph 135 

His domestic misfortunes. . . . 136 



Haughty conduct of Rome in 

the East 136 

Embassy to Antiochus Epiph- 

anes 136 

Treatment of Eumenes, king 

of Pergamus 136 

Mean conduct of Prusias, king 

ofBythinia 13G 

Treatment of the Rho- 

dians 136 

167. One thousand Achseans sent 

to Italy 136 



CONTENTS. 



ij,o. Page 
151. The survivors allowed to re- 
turn to Greece 137 

149. A pretender lays claim to the 

throne of Macedonia 137 

He is defeated and taken pris- 
oner 137 

147-146. The Ach^an Wak— 
146. Corinth taken by L. 

Mummius 138 

Final conquest of 

Greece 138 

Rome jealous of Carthage, . . . 13^) 
Advice of Scipio 139 



B.O. Page I 

War between Masinissa and 

Carthage 139 

Conduct of the Romans 140 

149-146. Thikd Punic War— 
147. Scipio Africanus the 

younger, Consul 140 

His parentage and 

adoption 140 

His character. 140 

146. He takes Carthage 142 

Formation of the Roman prov- 
ince of Africa 142 

Later history of Carthage. . . . 142 



CHAPTER XX. 



Spanish Waes, b.c. 153-133, 
153. War with the Celtiberians. . . 
152. Peace with the Celtiberians. . 
151. War with the Lusitanians. . . 
150. Treacherous murder of the 

Lusitanians by Galba 

Success of Viriathus against 

the Romans 

The Celtiberians again take 
up arms — the Numantine 

War 

140. Murder of Viriathus 

138. Brutus conquers the Gallseci 

137. The Consul Hostilius Manci- 

nus defeated by the Numan- 

tines 

He signs a peace with the Nu- 

mantines 

The Senate refuse to ratify it 
142. Censorship of Scipio Africa- 
nus 

134. Consul a second time 

He carries on the war against 



FiBST Servile War, b.c. 134-132. 



145 



Numantia. 



133. He takes Numantia 146 

Increase of slaves 145 

They rise in Sicily 146 

They elect Eunus as their 

leader 146 

Eunus assumes the title of 
king 146 

134. He defeats the Roman gener- 

als 147 

132. Is himself defeated and taken 

prisoner 147 

133, Death of Attains, last king of 

Pergamus 147 

He bequeaths his kingdom to 
the Romans 147 

131. Aristonicus lays claim to the 

kingdom of Pergamus 147 

130, Is defeated and taken pris- 
oner 147 

129. Formation of the province of 

Asia 147 

Extent of the Roman domin- 
ions 147 



CHAPTER XXI. 



The Geacchi. 

Necessity for reform 148 

Early life of Tiberius Grac- 
chus 149 

137. Qupestor in Spain 149 

133. Elected Tribune 150 

Brings forward an Agrarian 

Law 150 

Opposition of the landowners 150 
The Tribune Octaviua puts 

his veto upon it 150 

Deposition of Octavius 151 

The Agrarian Law enacted, . 151 



B.c, 133-121. 

Three Commissioners elected 151 

Distribution of the treasures 
of Pergamus among the Ro- 
man people 151 

Renewed opposition to Tibe- 
rius 151 

He becomes a candidate for 
the Tribunate a second time 151 

Riots 152 

Death of Tiberius 152 

132. Return of Scipio to Rome 152 

He opposes the popular party 153 



CONTENTS. 



.^B.o. Page 

~129. Death of Scipio 153 

126. Expulsion of the Allies from 

Kome 151 

125. M. Fulvius Flaccns proposes 

to give the franchise to the 

Italians 154 

Revolt and destruction of Fre- 
gellaj 154 

126. C. Gracchus goes to Sardinia 

as Quaestor 154 

124. He returns to Rome 157 

lis. He is elected Tribune 157 

His legislation , 157 

I. Laws for improving the 

condition of the people. . 157 

1. Extension of the 

Agrarian Law 157 

2. State provision for 

the poor 157 

3. Soldiers equipped 

at uhe expense of 

the Republic 157 

II. Laws to diminish the pow- 
er of the Senate 157 



B.C. Page 

1. Transference of the 

judicial power 
from the Senators 
to the Equites 157 

2. Distribution of the 

Provinces before 
the election of the 

Consuls 15S 

122. C. Gracchus Tribune a second 

time 15S 

Proposes to confer the citizen- 
ship upon the Latins 158 

Unpopularity of this proposal 153 
The Tribune M. Livius Dru- 

sus outbids Gracchus 158 

Foundation of a colony at Car- 
thage 159 

Decline of the popularity of 

Gracchus 159 

121. His murder 160 

Cornelia, the mother of the 
Gracchi 160 



CHAPTEE XXII. 

JUGUETHA AND HIS TEVTES. B.C. 118-104. 



C. Maeitts 


161 


134 Serves at the siege of Nu- 




mantia 


161 


Attracts the notice of Scipio 




Africanus 


161 


119. Tribune of the Plebs 


162 


115. Prajtor 


169, 


149. Death of Masinissa 


16'>. 


Accession of Micipsa 


162 


134.Jugurtha serves at the siege 






16?r 


118. Death of Micipsa 


162 


Jugurtha assassinates Hiemp- 




sai :. 


16n 


War between Jugurtha and 




Adherbal 


163 


117. Roman commissioners divide 




Numidia between Jugurtha 




and Adherbal 


163 


Fresh war between Jugurtha 




and Adherbal 


16S 


Siege of Cirta 


163 


112. Death of Adlierbal 


163 


111. The Romans declare war 






163 


Jugurtha bribes the Consul 




Calpurnius Bestia 


163 


Indignation at Rome 


163 


Jugurtha comes to Rome 


164 


111. He murders Massiva 


KH 


Renewal of the war 


164 



164 
164 



110. Incapacity of the Consul Sp. 

Postumius Albinus 164 

Defeat of his brother Aulus . . 164 
109. Bill of the Tribune C. Mamil- 

ius 

Many Romans condemned 

The Consul Q. Caecilius Metel- 

lus lands in Africa 164 

Accompanied by Marius as 

his lieutenant 165 

Metellus defeats Jugurtha 165 

Ambitious views of Marius. . . 165 
108. He quits Africa and arrives 

in Kome 166 

Is elected Consul 166 

Attacks the nobility 166 

Campaign of Metellus as Pro- 
consul 166 

The people give Marius com- 
mand of theNumidian War 
107. First Consulship of Marius. . . 

He arrives in Africa 

He defeats Jugurtha and Boc- 
chus, king of Mauritania. . . 
106. Bocchus surrenders Jugurtha 
to Sulla, the Quaestor of Ma- 
rius 

Early history of Sulla 167 

His character 167 

104. Triumph of Marius 16S 

His second Consulship 168 



166 
166 
166 

167 



167 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

The Cimbei and Tetttones, u.o. 113-101. Second Seevilb Wak in Sicily, 
B.C. 103-101. 

~ B.C. Page 

The Cimbri enter Italy by the 

Pass of Tridentum 170 

Great defeat of the Teutones 
by Marius at Aquae Sextiae 171 
101. Fifth Consulship of Marius. . 171 
Great defeat of the Teutones 
169 at Vercellse by Marius and 

the Proconsul Catulus 171 

169 Triumph of Marius and Ca- 
tulus 171 

103-101. Second Servile War in 

170 Sicily 171 

170 Tryphon king of the Slaves. . 172 

170 Succeeded by Athenio as 

170 king 172 

170 101. The Consul Aquillius puts an 

170 end to the war 172 

170 



Invasion of the Cimbri and 
Teutones 

Their probable origin 

113. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Pa- 
pirius Carbo 

109. Defeat of the Consul M. Ju- 
nius Silanus 

107. Defeat of the Consul L. Cas- 
sius Longinus 

105. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Mal- 
lius Maximus and the Pro- 
consul Cn. Servilius Caspio 

104. Second Consulship of Marius 
The Cimbri invade Spain 

103. Third Consulship of Marius. . 

102. Fourth Consulship of Marius 
The Cimbri return from Spain 

102. Marius takes up his position 
near Aries 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

Internal Histoet op Rome, from the Defeat of the Cimbei and Teu- 
tones TO the Social Wae. b.c. 100-91. 

Marius visits the East 175 

92. Condemnation of Rutilius 

Rufus 175 

91. Tribunate of M. Li\-ius Dni- 

sus 175 

His measures 176 

Proposes to give the franchise 

to the Italian allies 176 

His assassination 176 



100. Sixth Consulship of Marius. . 173 
His league with the dema- 
gogues Saturninus and 

Glaucia 173 

Agrarian Law of Saturninus 174 

Banishment of Metellus 174 

Saturninus declared a public 

enemy 174 

He is put to death 175 



CHAPTER XXV. 



The Social or Maesio 

90. The Allies take up arms 178 

The war breaks out at Ascu- 

lum in Picenum 178 

Corfinium the new capital of 

the Italian confederation. . 178 
Q. Pompsedius Silo, a Marsian, 

and C. Papius Mutilus, a 

Samnite, the Italian Consuls 178 
Defeat and death of the Roman 

Consul P. Rutilius Lupus. . 179 



Wae. B.C. 90-89. 

Exploits of Marius 179 

The Lex Julia 179 

9. Success of the Romans 180 

The Lex Plautia Papiria 180 

The franchise given to the 

Allies 180 

All the Allies lay down their 
arms except the Samnites 

and Lucanians 180 

Ten new Tribes formed 180 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

FiBST Civil Wae. b.o. 88-S6. 



B.C. Page 

88. Consulship of Sulla 181 

Receives the command of the 
Mithridatic War 

The Tribune P. Sulpicius Ru- 
fus 

He proposes to distribute the 
Italians among the thirty- 
five Tribes 

Sulla flies from Rome to Nola 

The people give Marius the 
command of the Mithrida- 
tic War 

Sulla marches upon Rome. 



181 
182 



182 
182 



Sulpicius put to death 183 



rj.o. Page 

Marius flies from Rome 183 

His adventures 183 

Is seized at Mintumse 183 

Escapes to Africa IS-t 

Sulla sails to the East 184 

87. Riots at Rome 185 

The Consul Cinna invites the 

assistance of Marius 185 

Marius and Cinna march upon 

Rome 185 

They enter the city 185 

Proscription of their enemies 185 

86. Seventh Consulship of Marius 185 

His death 185 



CHAPTER XXVII. 



FiEST Mithridatic 

Kingdom of Pontus 186 

Its history 186 

120. Accession of Mithridates VI. 186 

His early life 186 

His attainments 187 

His conquests 187 

His disputes with the Ro- 
mans 187 

88. He invades Cappadocia and 

Bithynia 187 

He invades the Roman prov- 
ince of Asia 188 

Massacre of Romans and Ital- 
ians 188 



Wak. B.C. 88-84. 
87. The Grecian states declare in 

favor of Mithridates 188 

Sulla lands in Epirus 188 

He lays siege to Athens and 

the Piraeus 188 

86. Takes these cities 188 

Defeats Archelaus, the general 
of Mithridates, at Chseronea 188 
85. Again defeats Archelaus at 

Orchomenus 189 

84. Peace with Mithridates 189 

Sulla attacks Fimbria, the 
Marian general, in Asia.. . . 189 
83. He returns to Italy 189 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

Second Civil Wae — Sulla's Dictatorship, Legislation, and Death. 
B.C. 83-78. 



84. Consulshipof Cinna and Carbo 

Death of Cinna 

83. Consulship of Scipio and Nor- 

banus 

Preparations for war 

The Italians support the Ma- 
rian party 

Sulla marches from Brundu- 

sium to Campania 

Defeats the Consul Norbanus 

Pompey, Metellus Pius, Cras- 

8us, and others, join Sulla. . 



191 



192 



82. Consulship of Papirus Carbo 

and the younger Marius . . . 192 
Defeat of Marius, who takes 

refuge in Praeneste 192 

Murder of Senators in Rome 

by order of Marius 192 

Great battle before the Colline 
gate at Rome between Sulla 

and the Samnites 192 

Defeat of the Samnites 193 

Surrender of Prseneste 19.S 

Death of Marius 193 



CONTENTS. 



XKl 



B.C. Page 

End of the war. 193 

Sulla master of Rome 193 

Proscription 193 

Dreadful scenes 194 

81. Sulla dictator 194 

He celebrates his triumph 

over Mithridates 194 

His refoi-ms in the constitution 194 

His militaiy colonies 194 

79. He resigns the Dictatorship , , 195 

He retires to Puteoli 195 

78. His death 195 

His funeral 196 

Leges Cornelia— 
1. Laws relating to the Con- 
stitution 196 

Deprive the Comitia 
Tributa of their leg- 
islative and j udicial 

powers 196 

Increase the power of 

the Senate 197 



Page 
Increase the number 
of the Quaestors and 

Praetors 197 

Deprive the Tribunes 

of all real power. . , 

II. Laivs relating to theEccle- 

siasticalCorporations. . 

Repeal of the Lex Do- 

mitia I97 

Increase of the num- 
ber of Pontiffs and 
Augurs 

III. Laws relating to the Ad- 

ministration of Justice 
Qusestiones Perpetuaj 
Transference of the 
Judicia from the 
Equites to the Sen- 
ators 198 

IV. Laws relating to the im- 

provement of Public 
Morals 198 



197 
197 



197 



197 
197 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

From the Death of Sulla to the Consulship of Pompey and Ckassus, 
B.O. 78-70. 



78. Consulship of Lspidus and 
Catulus 


199 

199 
199 

199 
200 
200 
200 

200 
200 
200 

200 
200 
200 
201 

201 

201 


72 
71 
73 
72 
71 

70 


Assassination of Sertorius by 


202 


Lepidus attempts to repeal 
the laws of Sulla 


Pompey finishes the war in 
Spain . ... 


202 


Is opposed by Catulus 

Is defeated at the Mulvian 

Bridge 

Retires to Sardinia 


War of the Gladiators : Spar- 
tacus 

Spartacus defeats both Con- 
suls 


202 
202 


His death 

S3. Sertorius in Spain 

79. Carries on war against Me- 


Crassus appointed to the com- 
mand of the war against the 
Gladiators 


202 


tellus.. 


Defeats and slays Spartacus 
Pompey cuts to pieces a body 

of Gladiators 

Consulship of Pompey and 


203 


Cn. Pompeius Magnus 

His birth 


203 


89. Fights against the Italians 
under his father 


83. Joins Sulla 


Pompey restores the Tribuni- 




82. Is sent into Sicily and Africa 


•^0^ 


80. Enters Rome in triumph. . . 

78. Supports the aristocracy 

against Lepidus. , . . 


Law of L. Aurelius Cotta, 
transferring the Judicia to 
the Senators, Equites, and 
Tribuni .iEraril 




76. Is sent into Spain to assist 


204 


Metellus 







CHAPTER XXX. 

Third OE Great Mithridatic War. b.o. 74-61. 
83. Second Mithridatic War— Preparations of Mithridates. . 

Murena invades Pontus 205 74. Third .Mithridatic War — 

82. Mithridates defeats Murena 205 Mithridates defeats the Con- 
End of the Second Mithridatic sul Cotta 

War 205 I He lays siege to Cyzicus 



206 



206 
206 



XXll 



CONTENTS. 



B.C. Page 

73. The siege is raised by Lttcullus 207 
Liiculliis defeats Mlthridates 207 
71. Mlthridates takes refuge in 

Armenia 207 

70. Luculliis settles the affairs of 

Asia 207 

69. He invades Armenia and de- 
feats Tlgranes 208 

68. Lucvillus defeats Tlgranes and 
Mlthridates, and lays siege 

toNisibis 208 

67. Mlthrld.ates returns to Pontus, 
and defeats the generals of 

Lucullus 208 

Mutiny in the army of Lucul- 
lus 208 

The command of the Mithri- 

datic War given to Glabrio 209 
War with the Pirates — 

Account of the Pirates 209 

Command of the war given 
by the Gabinian Law to 

Pompey 210 

Success of Pompey 210 

He finishes the war 210 

66. Third Mithridatic War 

continued 210 



B.C. - Page 

Command of the Mithridatic 
War given by the Manillan 

Law to Pompey 210 

It is opposed by the aristocracy 211 

It is supported by (Jicero 211 

Pompey defeats Mlthridates . . 211 
Mlthridates retires into the 

Cimmerian Bosporus 211 

Pompey Invades Armenia. ... 212 

Submission of Tlgranes 212 

65. Pompey pursues Mlthridates 212 
He advances as far as the 

Pdver Phasls 212 

He returns to Pontus, -ivhicli 
lie reduces to the foi-m of a 

Roman province 212 

64. He marches into Syria, whicli 

he makes a lioman province 212 
63. He subdues Phoenicia and Pal- 
estine 212 

He takes Jerusalem 212 

Preparations of Mlthridates. . 213 

Conspiracy against him 213 

His death 218 

Pompey settles the affairs of 

Asia 213 

62. He returns to Italy 213 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

Internal History, from the Consulship of Pompev and Crassus to the 

Retuen of Pompey from the East: the Conspiracy of Catiline. 

B.C. 69-61. 



C. Julius C^sar— 

100. His birth 214 

His early history 214 

Proscribed by Sulla 215 

81. He sei^ves in Asia 215 

77. Accuses Dolabella 215 

Taken by the Pirates 215 

75. Studies in Rhodes 215 

68. Qua3stor 215 

65. Curule ^dile 216 

Restores the statues of Ma- 

rius 216 

M. TuLLius Cicero — 

106. His birth 216 

89. Serves in the Social War. . 216 

81. His speech for P. Qulntius 216 
80. His speech for Sex. Koscius 

of Ameria 216 

79. He goes to Athens 216 



78. He studies in Rome 216 

77. He returns to Rome 216 

76. Qusestor in Sicily 217 

70. He accuses Verres 217 

69. ^dile 217 

66. Prajtor 217 

He speaks on behalf of the 

Manillan law 217 

65. First conspiracy of Catiline. . 217 

History of Catiline 218 

63. Consulship of Cicero 219 

Second conspiracy of Catiline 219 

Catiline quits Rome 220 

Cicero seizes the conspirators 220 

They are put to death 221 

62. Defeat and death of Catiline 221 

Popularity of Cicero 221 

Remarks upon the punishment 

of the conspirators 221 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

From Pompey's Retubn from the East tc Cicero's Banishment and Re- 
call. B.C. 62-57. 

62. Pompey arrives in Italy 223 I 60. The Senate refuses to sanction 

61. Triumph of Pompey 223 Pompey's measures in Asia 224 

State of parties in Rome 224 | 62. Pr?etorship of r;sRgar 224 



CONTENTS. 



B.O. Page 

Gl. Propraetor in Spain 224 

CO. His \ictorie3 in Spain 224 

He returns to Kome 225 

FiEST Tkiumvirate 225 

59. Consulship of Cse-ar 225 

Agrarian Law for the division 

of the (,'ampanian land 225 

Katification of Pompey's acts 

in Asia 225 

Marriage of Julia, Caesar's 

daughter, with Pompey 225 

Caesar gains over the I'^quites . . 225 
Vatinian Law, granting to Cae- 
sar the provinces of Cisalpine 



Gaul and Illyricum for five 

years 22G 

Transalpine Gaul added 22G 

62. Clodius profanes the rites of 

the Bona Dea 226 

61. His trial and acquittal 227 

His enmity against Cicero 227 

58. Tribune of the Plebs 227 

He accuses Cicero 227 

Banishment of Cicero 227 

57. Riots at Rome between Clo- 
dius and Milo 227 

Return of Cicero from banish- 
ment 228 



CHAPTER XXXIIL 

CiESAK'S CAjMPAIGNS IN GaUL. B.C. 58-61. 



53. First Campaign 

He defeats the Helvetii 

He defeats Ariovistus and 

the Germans 

57. Second Cantpaign 

The Belgic \Var 

Great victoiy over the Nervii 
56. Third Campaign 

He defeats the Veneti 

He defeats the Morini and 

Menapii 

55. Fourth Campaign 

(;?esar crosses the Rhine 

His first invasion of Britain 

54. Fifth Campaign 

His second invasion of Britain 
Revolt of the Eburones 



229 


They destroy the detachment 




229 


of T. Titurius Sabinus and 






L. Aurunculeius Cotta 


232 


230 


They attack the camp of Q. 




21]0 


Cicero 


2;-}2 


9.S0 


53. Sixth Campainn 


9,^*>, 


230 


Caesar puts down the revolt 




230 


in Gaul 


'm 


2B1 


He crosses the PJiine a sec- 






ond time 


^^s 


231 


52. Seventh Campaign 


233 


'^31 


Revolt of all Gaul 


'>,r\ 


231 
231 


Headed by Vercingetoiix. . . 
Caesar takes Alesia and Ver- 


233 


232 


cingetorix 


234 


y^H'>, 




',^34 


232 


Pacification of Gaul 


234 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 



Internal History from the Rettjen of Ciceeo from Banishment to the 

Commencement of the Civil War : Expedition and Death of Crassus. 

B.C. 5T-50. 



57. Cicero supports the Triumvirs 235 
56. Pompey and Crassus meet Cae- 
sar at Luca 236 

Fresh an-angements for the 
continuance of their power. . 236 
rS. Second Consulship of Pompey 

and Crassus 236 

The Trebonian Law, giving the 
two Spains to Pompey and 
Syria to Crassus, and pro- 
longing Pompey's govern- 
ment for five years more 236 

Dedication of Pompey's theatre 236 
54, Crassus crosses the Euphrates 237 

He winters in Syria 2.37 

53. He again crosses the Euphrates 237 
Is defeated and slain near 
Carrhse 237 



54. Death of Julia 237 

53. Riots in Rome 238 

52. Murder of Clodius by Milo.. . . 238 

Pompey sole Consul 238 

Trial and condemnation of Milo 238 
51. Rupture between Caesar and 

Pompey 239 

Pompey joins the aristocratical 

party 239 

49. Pi-oposition that Caesar should 

lay down his command 240 

The Senate invest the Consuls 

with dictatorial power 240 

The Tribunes Antony and Cas- 

sius fly to Caesar's camp 240 

Commencement of the Civil 
War 240 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

The Beginning of the Second Civil Wae to C^sae's Deatq. b.o. 49-44. 



241 



242 
242 



15.0. Page 

49. Caesar at Eavenna 241 

He crosses the Rubicon 241 

His triumphal progress through 

Italy 

Pompey and his party fly from 

Rome to Brundusium 

They are pui'sued by Caesar. . . 

They embark for Greece 242 

Caesar goes to Rome 242 

He sets out for Spain 242 

He conquers L. Africanus and 
M. Petreius, Pompey's lieu- 
tenants in Spain 243 

Is appointed Dictator, which of- 
fice he holds only eleven days 243 

He takes Massilia 243 

48. He sails from Brundusium to 

Greece 243 

He besieges Pompey at Dyr- 

rhachium 244 

Is compelled to retire 244 

Battle of Pharsalia, and defeat 

of Pompey 244 

Pompey flies to Egypt 245 

His death 245 

Caesar is appointed Dictator a 

second time 245 

The Alexandrine War 24G 



B.C. Page 

47. Conclusion of the Alexandrine 

War 246 

Caesar marches into Pontus and 

defeats Pharnaces 246 

He sails to Africa 246 

46. Battle of Thapsus, and defeat 

of the Pompeians 246 

Siege of Utica 247 

Death of Cato 247 

Caesar returns to Rome 247 

His triumph 247 

His refoi-mation of the Calendar 247 

Insurrection in Spain 248 

Ca?sar sets out for Spain 248 

45. Battle of Munda, and defeat of 

the Pompeians 248 

Cfesar returns to Rome 248 

He is undisputed master of the 

Roman world 248 

Honors conferred upon him 248 

Use he made of his power 248 

His vast projects 249 

44. Conspiracy against Caesar's life 249 

Brutus and Cassius 249 

Assassination of Caesar on the 

Ides of March 250 

Reflections on his death 250 

His character and genius 250 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 



Feom the Death of C^sar to the Battle of Philippi. b.c. 44-42. 



44. Proceedings of the conspirators 

Antony and Lepidus 252 

Pretended reconciliation 253 

Caesar's will 253 

His funeral 253 

Popular indignation against the 

conspirators 253 

They fly from Rome 253 

Octavifs, Caesar's nephew, at 

Illyricum 253 

Is made Caesar's heir 253 

He proceeds to Rome 254 

His opposition to Antony 254 

He courts the Senate 254 

Antony proceeds to Cisalpine 

Gaul, and lays siege to Mutina 254 

43. Cicero's second Philippic 254 

Octavian and the Consuls Hir- 

tius and Pansa march against 

Antony 255 



They attack Antony 255 

Death of Ilirtius and Pansa.. . 255 
Antony is defeated, and crosses 

the Alps 255 

Octavian marches to Rome 255 

Is declared Consul 255 

Breaks with the Senate, and 
outlaws the murderers of 

Caesar 255 

Marches against Antony and 

Lepidus 255 

Is reconciled -with them 256 

Second Triumvirate 256 

The Triumvirs enter Rome.. . . 256 

Dreadful Scenes 250 

Death of Cicero 257 

Sextus Pompey master of Sicily 

and the Mediterranean 257 

He defeats the fleet of the Tri- 
umvirs 257 



CONTENTS. 



Brntus obtains possession of 

Macedonia 258 

Cassius, of Syria 258 

Their pi'oceedings in the East 258 

They plunder Asia Minor 258 



B.C. Page 

42. They return to Europe to meet 

the Triumvirs 25S 

Battle of Philippi 261 

Death of Brutus and Cassius 261 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

Feom the Battle of Philippi to the Battle of Actittm. b.c. 41-30. 
41. Antony remains in the East 262 
He meets Cleopatra at Tarsus 262 
He accompanies her to Alex- 
andria 263 



Octavian returns to Rome. . , 

Confusion in Italy 

Confiscation of lands 

^jl^via, the wife of Antony, 



263 
263 



263 
263 



264 



264 



and L. Antonius, his broth- 
er, rise against Antony 

They take refuge in Perusia 
40. Capture of Perusia, and end 

of the war 263 

The Parthians invade Syria. . 

Antony joins Sextus Pompey 
and lays siege to Brundu- 
sium 

Reconciliation between An- 
tony and Octavian 264 

Fresh division of the Roman 
world 264 

Antony marries Octavia 264 

39. Peace with Sextus Pompey at 

Misenum 264 

Ventidius, the Legate of An- 
tony, defeats the Parthians 265 
38. He again defeats the Parthians 265 

Death of Pacorus 265 

War with Sextus Pompey 265 

He destroys the fleet of Octa- 
vian 265 



37. Antony comes toTarenlum. . 


265 


Triumvirate renewed for an- 




other period of five years. . 


266 


36. Renewal of the war with Sex- 




tus Pompey 


266 


His defeat 


266 


Heflies to Asia 


266 


Lepidus deprived of his Tri- 




umvirate 


266 


35. Death of Pompey 


266 


36. Antony joins Cleopatra 


267 




Vrt7 


He invades Parthia 


967 


His disastrous retreat 


267 


34. He invades Armenia 


267 


Octavian subdues the Dalma- 






967 


His prudent conduct 


26T 


33. Rupture between Octavian and 






9(>7 


32. "War against Cleopatra 


268 


31. Battle of Actium 


96S 


Defeat of Antony 


268 


He flies to Alexandria 


268 


30. Death of An tony and Cleopatra 


269 


Egypt made a Roman province 


269 


End of the Republic 


V6^ 


29. Triumph of Octavian 


269 


2T. He receives the title of Au- 






970 


HispoUcy 


270 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

Sketch of the History of Roman Literature from the Earliest Times 
to the Death of Augustus. 



Poetry — 

Satumian Metre 272 

Commencement of Roman 
Literature 272 

The Drama — 

240. M. Livius Andronicus 272 

235. Cn. Nsevius 273 

239-169. Q. Ennius 273 



254-184. T. Maccius Plautus 273 

195-159. P. Terentius Afer 274 

160. Q. Caicilius 274 

100. L. Afranius 274 

220-180. M. Pacuvius 275 

170-90. L. Accius 275 

Commdice Togatce 274 

Comoedice Palliatce 274 



CONTENTS. 



15.0. Page 

Comoedice Prmtextatm 275 

Atellance Fabulce 275 

Mimes 275 

50. Dec. Laberius 275 

P. Syrus 275 

Fescennine Songs 276 

Satire 276 

148-103. C. Lucilius 276 

95-51. T. Lucretius Carus 276 

87-47. Valerius Catullus 276 

70-10. P. Virgilius Maro 277 

65-8. Q. Horatius Flaccus 278 

30. Albius Tibullus 280 

Aurelius Propertius 280 



B.C. A.D. Page 

43-18. P. Ovidiua Naso. 28 1 

B.C. 

Prose Writers— 

The A7malists 282 

210. Q. Fabius Pictor 282 

L. Cincius Alimentus 282 

234-140. M. Porcius Cato 282 

106-43. M. Tullius Cicero 282 

117-28. M. Terentius Varro 288 

100-44. C. Julius Caesar 283 

86-34. C. Sallustius Crispus 284 

Cornelius Nepos 284 

B.C. A.D. 

59-17. Titus Livius 284 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

The Reign of Augustus C^sab. b.c. 31-a.T). 14. 

('onduct of Augustus 286 

His friends 286 

Police of Rome 286 

Condition of the empire 287 

Italy, Gaul, and Spain 287 

Africa 288 

Egypt and Greece 288 

Boundaries of the empire 289 

The Praetorian guard 290 

Army and navy, 290 



.^91 



Augustus in Spain 

His family , 

His wife, Livia 292 

Marcellus, Julia, Tiberius 292 

Caius and Lucius Caesar 293 

pirth of the Savior 293 

Death of Augustus 294 

His character and personal appear- 
ance 294 



CHAPTER XL. 

From the Accession of Tiberius, a.d. 14-37, to Domitian, a.d. 96. 



Accession of Tiberius 295 

Gennanicus 296 

His death 296 

The Lex Majestas 297 

The Delatores 297 

Sejanus 297 

Death of Sejanus 298 

Death of Tiberius 299 

Caligula 299 

Claudius 300 



His conduct 300 

The Emperor Nero 301 

His crimes 301 

Vitellius 302 

Vespasian 302 

Fall of Jerusalem 303 

Reign of Titus '304 

The Colosseum 304 

Reign of Domitian 305 

He persecutes the Christians 305 



CHAPTER XLI. 

Prosperity of the Empire, a.d. 96. — Commodus, a.d. 180.— Reign of M. 
CoccEius Nerva, a.d. 96-98. 



The Emperor Nerva 306 

Prosperity of the empire 306 

... 307 

... 307 



iTajan 

His wise administration. 
The Dacian war 

(Conquests in the East. . , 
Trajan's public works... 
Reign of Hadrian. 



.... 308 

.... 309 

309 

His travels 310 



His death 312 

Antoninus Pius 313 

His excellent character 313 

Marcus Aurelius 314 

His conduct 315 

He defeats the Barbarians 316 

The depraved Commodus 316 

His vices 316 

Is assassinated 316 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XLII. 

Fkom Pertinax to Diocletian. a.i>. 192-284. 



Page 

Pertinax made emperor 319 

Is assassinated 319 

Didius Julianus 319 

Severus 320 

His severe rule 320 

Geta and Caracalla 321 

Papinian executed 321 

Cruelties of Caracalla 322 

Elagabalus 322 



Page 

Alexander Sevenis 322 

Maximin 323 

The Goths invade the empire. . . . 324 

Valerian 325 

Thirty tyrants 325 

Zenobia 325 

Aurelian 325 

The Emperor Tacitus 326 

Frugal habits of Carus 326 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

Feom Diocletian, a.d. 284, to Constantine's Death, a.i>. 337. 



Diocletian 327 

His colleagues 328 

Persecution of the Christians 329 

Abdication of Diocletian 329 

Constantine the Great 330 

His administration 331 

The Council of Nice 332 



Constantinople 332 

Its magnificence 333 

The praefectures 334 

Christianity the national religion 334 

Taxes 334 

Family of Constantine 335 

He is baptized and dies 335 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

Fkom the Death of Constantine, a.d. 337, to Eomtjlxts Augustultjs, 
A.D. 476. 



The three sons of Constantine — S36 

Constantius jealous of Julian 337 

Julian becomes emperor. 337 

Attempts to restore Paganism 337 

Valentinian 338 

The Huns appear in Europe 338 

The Goths cross the Danube 338 

Theodosius the Great 339 

Stilicho 339 



Alaric enters Italy 340 

Luxury of the Romans 340 

Sack of Rome 341 

Arcadius and Honorius 341 

The Vandals 342 

The Huns 342 

Romulus Augustulus 343 

Extinction of the Empire of the 

West 343 



CHAPTER XLV. 

Roman Litebatuee under the Empire, a.d. 14-476. 



Decline of letters 344 

Epic poetiy — Lucan 344 

Silius Italicus 344 

Claudian 345 

Persius, Juvenal 345 

Martial 346 

History — Velleius Paterculus 340 

Valerius Maximus 346 

Tacitus 347 

Quintus Curtius s. 347 



Rhetoric — Seneca the elder 348 

Quintilian 348 

Appuleius 349 

Philosophy — Seneca 349 

The elder Pliny 349 

His nephew 350 

Grammarians — Macrobius 350 

Marcellinus 350 

Legal writers — Gains 350 

Science and art 351 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 



The Roman Forura 

Puteal on .1 Coin of the Scribonia Gens. 
Map of Italy. 

Page 

Temple of Janus vi 

JuUus Caesar vii 

Virgil XXX 

Tivoli, the ancient Tibur 1 

Gate of Arpinum 6 

The Alban Hills 7 

Plan of the City of Romulus 11 

Salii carrying the Ancilia 13 

Arch of Volaterrse 15 

Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina 16 

Cloaca Maxima 17 

Map of Rome, showing the Servian 

Wall and the Seven HUls 21 

Coin representing the children of 

Brutus led to death by Lictors. . 28 

The Campagna of Rome 29 

The Environs of Rome S3 

Tarpeian Rock 36 

View in the neighborhood of 

Veil 41 

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus re- 
stored 45 

Ruins at Capua 52 

Coin of Pyrrhus 60 

Temple of Vesta. 67 

Mount Ercta in Sicily 68 

Columna Rostrata 71 

Plan of Mount Ercta 76 

Coin of Carthage 77 

Coin of Hiero 81 

Lake Trasimenus 82 

Map of the coasts of the Mediter- 
ranean, illustrating the history 

of the Punic Wars 85 

Route of Hannibal 89 

Plain of Cannse.. 91 

Hannibal 90 

The Capitoline Wolf. 105 

Coin of Antiochus the Great 106 

Roman Soldiers 113 

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 115 

Lictors 116 

A Roman general addressing the 

soldiers 125 

Scipio Africanus 126 



• Fkontispiece. 
, Title-page. 



Page 
Island in the Tiber, with the Fa- 

brician and Cestian Bridges 134 

Plan of Carthage 141 

Personification of the River Tiber 143 

Stairs of the modern Capitol 148 

The Forum in its present state... . 155 

Temple of Saturn at Rome 160 

A Roman Trophy 161 

Caius Marius 169 

Tomb of Metella Csecilia 173 

Beneventum in Samnium 1T7 

Coin of the Eight Italian Nations 

taking the Oath of Federation. . 178 

TeiTacina 181 

Mount Argseus in Cappadocia 186 

Coin of Nicomedes HI., king of 

Bithynia 189 

Brundusium 190 

Coin of Sulla 198 

Cn. Pompeius Magnus 199 

Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at 

Rome 204 

Coin of Mithridates 205 

Coin of Tigranes 207 

Cicero 214 

Coin of Pompey 222 

Julius Csesar 223 

Temple of Hercules at Rome 228 

Temple of Nemausus iNmies)^ now 

called the Maison Carree 229 

Ruins on the Esquiline 235 

Marcus Brutus 241 

Coin of Julius Cajsar 250 

Statue of a Roman, representing 

the Toga 251 

M. Antonius 252 

Philippi 259 

Coin of Antony and Cleopatra 261 

M. Agrippa 262 

Plan of Actium 268 

Map of the Provinces of the Ro- 
man Empire 271 

Horace 2T2 

Maecenas 285 

Aureus of Augustus Caesar. 286 



XXX 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page 

Gold Coin of Agrippa 202 

The Carpentum or Chariot 293 

Medal of Augustus 294 

Medal of Nero 295 

Roman Galley 299 

Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius . . . 306 

Trajan's Pillar 308 

Hadrian's Mausoleum restored 311 

Reverse of a Brass Coin of Antoni- 
nus Pius 313 

Commodus 317 

Pertinax 318 

Septimius Severus 319 



Page 

Caracalla 321 

Alexander Severus 323 

Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace 

at Spolatro 327 

Constantine and Fausta 330 

Arch of Constantine 331 

Map of the Propontis, Hellespont, 

and Bosphorus 333 

Map of Constantinople 333 

Julian the Apostate 336 

Juvenal 351 

Coin of Augustus 365 




Virgil. 




MAP O 




ALY. 



.Ti^I 



HISTORY OF ROME. 




Tivoli, the ancient Tibur 



CHAPTER I. 

GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY — EAELY INHABITAKTS. 

Italy is the central one of the three great peninsulas which 
project from the south of Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. It 
is bounded on the north by the chain of the Alps, which form a 
natural barrier, and it is surrounded on other sides by the sea. Its 
shores are washed on the west by the " Mare Inferum," or the Low- 
er Sea, and on the east by the Adriatic, called by the Eoraans the 
"Mare Superum," or the Upper Sea. It may be divided into two 
parts, the nortliern consisting of the great plain drained by the Riv- 
er Padus, or Po, and its tributaries, and the southern being a long 
tongue of land, with the Apennines as a back-bone running down 
A 



2 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. 1. 

its wliole extent from north to south. The extreme length of the 
])eninsula from the Alps to the Straits of Messina is 700 miles. 
The breadth of northern Italy is 350 miles, while that of the south- 
ern portion is on an average not more than 100 miles. But, till 
the time of the Empire, the Romans never included the plain of 
the Po in Italy. To this country they gave the general name of 
Gallia Cisalpina, or Gaul on this (the Roman) side of the Alps, 
in consequence of its being inhabited by Gauls. The western- 
most portion of the plain was peopled by Ligurian tribes, and was 
therefore called Liguria, while its eastern extremity formed the 
Roman province of Venetia. 

The name Italia was originally applied to a very small tract 
of country. It was at first confined to the southern portion of Ca- 
labria, and Avas gradually extended northward, till about the time 
of the Punic wars it indicated the whole peninsula south of the 
Rivers Ridiicon and Macra, the former separating Cisalpine Gaul 
and Umbrla, the latter Liguria and Etruria. Italy, properly so 
called, is a very mountainous country, being filled up more or less 
by the broad mass of the Ajjcnnines, the otFshoots or lateral branch- 
es of which, in some parts, descend quite to the sea, but in others 
leave a considerable space of level or low country. Excluding the 
plain of the Po, it was divided into the following districts :* 

1. Etruria, which extended along the coast of the Lower Sea 
from the River Macra on the north to the Tiber on the south. In- 
land, the Tiber also formed its eastern boundary, dividing it first 
from Umbria, afterward from the Sabines, and, lastly, from Latium. 
Its inhabitants were called Etrusci, or Tusci, the latter form being 
still preserved in the name of Tuscany. Besides the Tiber it pos- 
sesses only one other river of any importance, the Arnus, or Arno, 
upon which the city o^ Florence now stands. Of its lakes the most 
considerable is the Lacus Trasimenus, about thirty-six miles in cir- 
cumference, celebrated for the great victory which Hannibal there 
gained over the Romans. 

2. Umbria, situated to the east of Etruria, and extending from 
the valley of the Tiber to the shores of the Adriatic. It was sep- 
arated on the north from Gallia Cisalpina by the Rubicon, and on 
the south by the ^sis from Picenum, and by the Nar from the Sa- 
bines. 

3. Picenum extended along the Adriatic from the mouth of the 
^sis to that of the Matrinus, and inland as far as the central ridge 
of the Apennines. It was bounded on the north by Umbria, on 
the south by the Vestini, and on the west by Umbria and the Sa- 

* The description which follows in the text must be compared with the map 
of Italy given in this work. 



Chap. I. GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. 3 

bini. Its inhabitants, the Picentes, were a Sabine race, as is men- 
tioned below. 

4. The Sabini inhabited the rugged mountain-country in the 
central chain of the Apennines, lying between Etruria, Umbria, 
Picenum, Latium, and the country of the Marsi and Vestini. 
They were one of the most ancient races of Italy, and the progen- 
itors of the far more numerous tribes which, under the names of 
Picentes, Peligni, and Samnites, spread themselves to the east and 
south. Modern writers have given the general name oi Sabellians 
to all these tribes. The Sabines, like most other mountaineers, 
were brave, hardy, and frugal ; and even the Romans looked up 
to them Avith admiration on account of their proverbial honesty 
and temperance. 

5. The Marsi, Peligni, Vestini, and Marrucini inhabited the 
valleys of the central Apennines, and were closely connected, being 
probably all of Sabine origin. The Marsi dwelt inland around 
the basin of the Lake Fucinus, Avhich is about thirty miles in cir- 
cumference, and the only one of any extent in the central Apen- 
nines. The Peligni also occupied an inland district east of the 
Marsi. The Vestini dwelt east of the Sabines, and possessed on 
the coast of the Adriatic a narrow space between the mouth of the 
Matrinus and that of the Aternus, a distance of about six miles. 
The Marrucini inhabited a narrow strip of country on the Adri- 
atic, east of the Peligni, and were bounded on the north by the 
Vestini and on the south by the Frentani, 

6. The Frentani dwelt upon the coast of the Adriatic from the 
frontiers of the Marrucini to those of Apulia. They were bounded 
on the west by the Samnites, from whom they were originally de- 
scended, but they appear in Roman history as an independent peo- 
ple. 

7. Latium was used in two senses. It originally signified only 
the land of the Latini, and was a country of small extent, bounded 
by the Tiber on the north, by the Apennines on the east, by the 
sea on the west, and by the Alban Hills on the south. But after 
the conquest of the Volscians, Hernici, -3<]quians, and other tribes, 
originall}^ independent, the name of Latium was extended to all 
the country which the latter had iDreviously occupied. It was thus 
applied to the whole region from the borders of Etruria to those of 
Campania, or from the Tiber to the Liris. The original abode of 
the Latins is of volcanic origin. The Alban Mountains are a great 
volcanic mass, and several of the craters have been filled with wa- 
ter, forming lakes, of Avhich the Alban Lake is one of the most re- 
markable. The plain in which Rome stands, now called the Cam- 
inirjna^ is not an unbroken Jevel, but a broad undulating tract, in- 



4 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. I. 

tersected by numerous streams, which have cut themselves deep 
channels through the soft volcanic tufa of which the soil is com- 
posed. The climate of Latium was not healthy even in ancient 
times. The malaria of the Campagna renders Rome itself un- 
healthy in the summer and autumn; and the Pontine Marshes, 
which extend along the coast in the south of Latium for a distance 
of thirty miles, are still more pestilential. 

8. Campania extended along the coast from the Liris, which 
separated it from Latium, to the Silarus, which formed the bound- 
ary of Lucania. It is the fairest portion of Italy. The greater 
part of it is an unbroken plain, celebrated in ancient as well as in 
modern times for its extraordinary beauty and fertility. The Bay 
of Naples — formerly called Sinus Cumanus and Tuteolanus, from 
the neighboring cities of Cumse and Puteoli — is one of the most 
lovely spots in the world ; and the softness of its climate, as well 
as the beauty of its scenery, attracted the Roman nobles, who had 
numerous villas along its coasts. 

9. Samnium was an inland district, bounded on the north by the 
Marsi and Peligni, on the east by the Frentani and Apulia, on the 
west by Latium and Campania, and on the south by Lucania. It 
is a mountainous country, being entirely filled with the masses of 
the Apennines. Its inhabitants, the Samnites, were of Sabine ori- 
gin, as has been already mentioned, and they settled in the coun- 
try at a comparatively late period. They were one of the most 
warlike races in Italy, and carried on a long and fierce struggle 
with the Romans. 

10. Apulia extended along the coast of the Adriatic from the 
Frentani on the north to Calabria on the south, and was bounded 
on the west by the Apennines, which separated it from Samnium 
and Lucania. It consists almost entirely of a great plain, sloping 
down from the Apennines to the sea. 

11. Calabria formed the heel of Italy, lying south of Apulia, 
and surrounded on every other side by the sea. It contains no 
mountains, and only hills of moderate elevation, the Apennines 
running to the southwest through Lucania and the Bruttii. 

12. Lucania was bounded on the north by Campania and Sam- 
nium, on the east by Apulia, and on the south by the Bruttii. The 
Apennines run through the province in its whole extent. The Lu- 
canians were a branch of the Samnite nation,^ which separated 
from the main body of that people, and pressed on still farther to 
the south. 

13. The Bruttii* inhabited the southern extremity of Italy, ly- 

* The name " Bruttium," given to the country by modern writers on ancient 
geography, is not found iu any classical author. 



CiiAP. I. EARLY INHABITANTS. 6 

ing south of Lncania ; and, like Lucania, their country is traversed 
throughout by the chain of the Apennines. 

Italy has been in all ages renowned for its beauty and fertility. 
The lofty ranges of the Apennines, and the seas which bathe its 
shores on both sides, contribute at once to temper and vary its cli- 
mate, so as to adapt it for the productions alike of the temperate 
and the warmest parts of Europe. In the plains on either side of 
the Apennines corn is produced in abundance ; olives flourish on 
the southern slopes of the mountains ; and the vine is cultivated 
in every part of the peninsula, the vineyards of northern Campania 
being the most celebrated in antiquity. 

Tlie early inhabitants of Italy may be divided into three great 
classes — the Italians proper, the Icq>i/gians, and \.h.e Etruscans^ who 
are clearly distinguished from each other by their respective lan- 
guages. 

(1.) The Italians proper inhabited the centre of the peninsula. 
They were divided into two branches, the Latins and the Umbi'o- 
SabeUians, including the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, and their 
numerous colonies. The dialects of the Latins and Umbro-Sabel- 
lians, though marked by striking diiibrences, still show clearest 
evidence of a common origin, and both are closely related to the 
Greek. It is evident that at some remote period a race migrated 
from the East, embracing the ancestors of both the Greeks and 
Italians — that from it the Italians branched off — and that they 
again were divided into the Latins on the west and the Umbrians 
and Sabellians on the east. ; . ,: , . 

(2.) The lapygians dwelt in Calabria, in the extreme southeast 
corner of Italy. Inscriptions in a peculiar language have here 
been discovei-ed, clearly showing that the inhabitants belonged to 
a difierent race from those whom we have designated as the Ital- 
ians. They were doubtless the oldest inhabitants of Italy, who 
were driven toward the extremity of the peninsula as the Latins 
and Sabellians pressed farther to the south. 

(3.) The Etruscans, or, as they called themselves, Basena, form a 
striking contrast to the Latins and Sabellians as well as to the 
Greeks. Their language is radically different from the other lan- 
guages of Italy ; and their manners and customs clearly prove them 
to be a people originally quite distinct from the Greek and Italian 
races. Their religion was of a gloomy chai-acter, delighting in 
mysteries and in wild and horrible rites. Their origin is unknown. 
Most ancient writers relate that the Etruscans were Lydians who 
had migrated by sea from Asia to Italy ; but this is very improba- 
ble, and it is now more generally believed that the Etruscans de- 
scended into Italy from the Rhtetian Alps. It is expressly stated 



6 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. I. 

by ancient writers that the Rhcetians were Etruscans, and that 
they spoke the same language; while their name is perhaps the 
same as that of Rasena, the native name of the -Etruscans. In 
more ancient times, before the Roman dominion, the Etruscans in- 
habited not only the country called Etruria, but also the great 
plain of the Po, as far as the foot of the Alps. Here they main- 
tained their ground till they were expelled or subdued by the in- 
vading Gauls. The Etruscans, both in the north of Italy and to 
the south of the Apennines, consisted of a confederacy of twelve 
cities, each of which was independent, possessing the power of even 
making war and peace on its own account. In Etruria proper 
Volsinii was regarded as the metropolis. 

Besides these three races, two foreign races also settled in the 
peninsula in historical times. These are the Greeks and the Gauls. 

(i.) The Greeks planted so many colonies upon the coasts of 
southern Italy that they gave to that district the name -of Magna 
Griecia. The most ancient, and, at the same time, the most north- 
erly Greek city in Italy, was Cumaj in Campania. Most of the 
other Greek colonies were situated farther to the south, where 
many of them attained to great power and opulence. Of these, 
some of the most distinguished were Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, 
and Metapontum. 

(5.) The Gau/s, as we have already said, occupied the greater 
part of northern Italy, and were so numerous and important as to 
give to the whole basin of the Po the name of Gallia Cisalpina. 
They were of the same race with the Gauls who inhabited the 
country beyond the Alps, and their migration and settlement in 
Italy were referred by the Roman historian to the time of the Tar- 
quins. 




Gate of Arpinum. 




The Alban Hills. 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE FIRST FOUR KIXGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616. 

' The history of Rome is that of a city which originally had only 
a few miles of territory, and gradually extended its dominions at 
first over Italy and then over the civilized world. The city lay in 
the central part of the peninsula, on the left bank of the Tiber, 
and abont fifteen miles from its month. Its situation was upon 
the borders of three of the most powerful races in Italy, the Latins, 
Sabines, and Etruscans. Though originally a Latin town, it re- 
ceived at an early period a considerable Sabine population, which 
left a permanent impression upon the sacred rites and religious 
institutions of the people. The Etruscans exercised less influence 
upon Rome, though it appears nearly certain that a part of its pop- 
ulation was of Etruscan origin, and that the two Tarquins repre- 
sent the establishment of an Etruscfan dynasty at Rome. The 
population of the city may therefore be regarded as one of mixed 
origin, consisting of the three elements of Latins, Sabines, and 
Etruscans, but the last in much smaller proportion than the other 
two. That the Latin element predominated over the Sabine is 
also evident from the fact that the language of the Romans was a 
Latin and not a Sabellian dialect. „ 



8 HIiSTORY OF ROME. Chap. II. 

The early history of Rome is given in an unbroken narrative by 
the Roman writers, and was received by the Romans themselves as 
a faithful record of facts. But it can no longer be regarded in that 
light. Not only is it full of marvelous tales and poetical embel- 
lishments, of contradictions and impossibilities, but it wants the 
very foundation upon which all history must be based. The read- 
er, therefore, must not receive the history of the first four centuries 
of the city as a statement of undoubted facts, though it has un- 
questionably preserved many circumstances which did actually oc- 
cur. It is not until we come to the war with Pyrrhus that we can 
place full reliance upon the narrative as a trustworthy statement 
of facts. "With this caution v/e now proceed to relate the cele- 
brated legends of the foundation and early history of Rome. 

^neas, son of Anchises and Venus, fled after the fall of Troy to 
seek a new home in a foreign land. He carried with him his son 
Ascanius, the Penates or household gods, and the Palladium of 
Troy.* Upon reaching the coast of Latium he was kindly re- 
ceived by Latinus, the king of the country, who gave him his 
daughter Lavinia in marriage. ^iEneas now built a city, which he 
named Lavinium, in honor of his wife. But Lavinia had been 
previously promised to Turnus, the leader of the Rutulians. This 
youthful chief, enraged at the insult, attacked the strangers. He 
was slain, however, by the hands of JEneas ; but in a new war 
which broke out three years afterward the Trojan hero disappeared 
amid the waters of the River Numicius, and was henceforward 
worshiped under the name of Jupiter Indiges, or "god of the 
country." 

Ascanius, who was also called lulus, removed from Lavinium 
thirty years after its foundation, and built Alba Longa, or the 
"Long White City," on a ridge of the Alban Mount about fifteen 
miles southeast of Rome. It became the most powerful city in 
Latium, and the head of a confederacy of Latin cities. Twelve 
kings of the family of ^neas succeeded Ascanius. The last of 
these, named Procas, left two sons, Numitor and Amulius. Amu- 
lius, the younger, seized the kingdom ; and Numitor, who was of a 
peaceful disposition, made no resistance to his brother. Amulius, 
fearing lest the children of Numitor might not submit so quietly 
to his usurpation, caused his only son to be murdered, and made 
his daughter, Rhea Silvia, one of the vestal virgins, who were com- 
pelled to live and die unmarried. But the maiden became, by 
the god Mars, the mother of twins. She was, in consequence, put 

* The Palladium was a statue of Pallac, or Minerva, Avhich was said to have 
fallen from heaven, and was preserved at Kome with the most pacred care. 



B.C. 753-716. REIGN OF ROMULUS. 9 

to death, because she had broken her vow, and her babes were 
doomed to be drowned in the river. The Tiber had overflowed 
its banks far and wide; and" the cradle in which the babes were 
placed was stranded at the foot of the Palatine, and overturned on 
the root of a wild fig-tree, A she-wolf, which had come to drink 
of the stream, carried them into her den hard by, and suckled 
them ; and when they wanted other food, the woodpecker, a bird 
sacred to Mars, brought it to them. At length, this marvelous 
spectacle was seen by Faustulus, the king's shepherd, who took the 
children home to his wife, Acca Larentia. They were called 
Romulus and Remus, and grew np along with the sons of their 
foster-parents on the Palatine Hill. 

A quarrel arose between them and the herdsmen of Numitor, 
who stalled their cattle on the neighboring hill of the Aventine. 
Remns was taken by a stratagem, and carried otFto Numitor. His 
age and noble bearing made Numitor think of his grandsons ; and 
his suspicions -svere confirmed by the tale of the marvelous nurture 
of the twin brothers. Soon afterward Romulus hastened with his 
foster-father to Numitor ; suspicion was changed into certainty, 
and the old man recognized them as his grandsons. They now 
resolved to avenge the wrongs which their family had suffered. 
W'.h the help of their faithful comrades they slew Amulius, and 
placed Numitor on the throne. 

Romulus and Remus loved their old abode, and therefore left 
Alba to found a city on the banks of the Tiber. But a dispute 
arose between the brothers where the city should be built, and after 
whose name it should be called. Romulus wished to build it on 
the Palatine, Remus on the Aventine. It was agreed that the 
quej^on should be decided by the gods ; and each took his station 
on the top of his chosen hill, awaiting the pleasure of the gods by 
some striking sign. The night passed away, and as the day was 
dawning Remus saw six vultures ; but at sunrise, when these tid- 
ings were brought to Romulus, twelve vultures flew by him. Each 
claimed the augury in his own favor ; but the shepherds decided 
for Romulus, and Remus was therefore obliged to yield. 

1. Reign op Romulus, b.c. 753-716. — Romulus now proceeded 
to mark out the- boundaries of his city. He yoked a bullock and 
a heifer to a plow, and drew a deep furrow round the Palatine. 
This formed the sacred limits of the city, and was ^lled the Po- 
jiKerium. To the original city on the Palatine was given the name 
of Roma Qiiadrata, or Square Rome, to distinguish it from the one 
which subsequently extended over the seven hills. 

Rome is said to have been foimdcd on the 21st of April, 753 
years before the Christian ern. 



10 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. II. 

On the line of the Pomoerium Romulus began to raise a wall. 
One day Remus leapt over it in scorn ; whereupon Romulus slew 
him, exclaiming, " So die whosoever hereafter shall leap over my 
walls." Romulus now found his people too few in numbers. Ac- 
cordingly, he set apart on the Capitoline Hill an asylum, or a sanc- 
tuary, in which homicides and runaway slaves might take refuge. 
The city thus became filled with men, but they wanted women, 
and the inhabitants of the neighboring cities refused to give their 
daughters to such an outcast race. Romulus accordingly resolved 
to obtain by force what he could not obtain by treaty. He pro- 
claimed that games were to be celebrated in honor of the god 
Consus, and invited his neighbors, the Latins and Sabines, to the 
festival. Suspecting no treachery, they came in numbers with 
their wives and children, but the Roman youths rushed upon their 
guests and carried off the virgins. The parents returned home 
and prepared for vengeance. The inhabitants of three of the 
Latin towns, Caenina, Antemnce, and Crustumerium, took up arms 
one after the otlier, but were defeated by the Romans. Romulus 
slew with his own hand Acron, king of Cisnina, and dedicated his 
arms and armor, as spoUn opima, to Jupiter. These were offered 
when the commander of one army slew with his own hand the 
commander of another, and were only gained twice afterward in 
Roman history. At last Titus Tatius, the king of Cures, the most 
powerful of the Sabine states, marched against Rome. His forces 
were so great that Romulus, unable to resist him in the field, was 
obliged to retire into the city. Besides the city on the Palatine, 
Romulus had also fortified the top of the Capitoline Hill, which 
he intrusted to the care of Tarpeius. But his daughter Tarpeia^ 
dazzled by the golden bracelets of the Sabines, promised to hgtray 
the hill to them " if they would give her what they wore on xheir 
left arms." Her offer was accepted. In the night-time she open- 
ed a gate and let in the enemy, but when she claimed her reward 
they threw upon her the shields " which they wore on their left 
arms," and thus crushed her to death. One of the heights of the 
Capitoline Hill preserved her name, and it was from the Tarpeian 
Rock that traitors were afterward hurled down. On the next day 
the Romans endeavored to recover the hill. A long and desper- 
ate battle was fought in the valley between the Palatine and the 
Capitoline. At one time the Romans were driven before the ene- 
my, when Romulus vowed a temple to Jupiter Stator, the Stayer 
of Flight, whereupon his men took courage and returned again to 
the combat. At length the Sabine women, who were the cause 
of the war, rushed in between them, and prayed their husbands 
and f.ithers to be reconciled. Their prayers wei-e heard; the two 



B.C. 753-716. 



REIGN OF ROMULUS. 



11 



people not only made peace, but agreed to form only one nation. 
The Romans dwelt on the Palatine under their king Romulus, the 
Sabines on the Capitoline under their king Titus Tatius.* The 
two kings and their senates met for deliberation in the valley be- 
tween the two hills, which was hence called Coinitiuin, or the place 
of meeting, and which afterward became the Roman Forum. But 
this union did not 




last long. Titus Ta- 
tius was slain at La- 
vinium by some Lat- 
ins to whom he had 
refused satisfaction 
fur outrages commit- 
ted by his kinsmen. 
Henceforward Rom- 
ulus ruled alone over 
both Romans and Sa- 
bines, He reigned, 
in all, thirty-seven, 
years. One day, as 
he was reviewing his 
people in the Cam- 
pus Martins, near 
the Goat's Pool, the 
sun was suddenly 
eclipsed, and a dread- 
ful storm dispersed 
the people. When 
daylight returned 
Romulus had disap- 
peared, for his father 
Mars had carried him 
up to heaven in a 
fiery chariot. Short- 
ly afterward he ap- 
peared in more than 
mortal beauty to the 
senator Proculus Sa- 
binus, and bade him 
tell the Romans to worship him under the name of the god Qui- 
rinus. 

As Romulus was regai-ded as the founder of Rome, its most an- 

* The Sabines were called Quiritea^ and this name was afterward applied to 
the Roman people in their civil capacity. 



Plan of the City of Komulus. 



12 HISTOKY OF ROME. Chap. II. 

cient political institutions and the organization of the people were 
ascribed to him by the popular belief. 

(i.) The Roman people consisted only of Patricians and their 
Clients. The Patricians formed the Populus Romanus, or sover- 
eign people. They alone had political rights ; the Clients were 
entirely dependent upon them. A Patrician had a certain number 
of Clients attached to him personally. To these he acted as a 
Patronus or Patron. He was bound to protect the interests of the 
Client both in public and private, while the Client had to render 
many services to his patron. 

(ii.) The Patricians were divided by Romulus into three Tribes; 
the Ramnes, or Romans of Romulus ; the Titles, or Sabines of Ti- 
tus Tatius ; and the Luceres, or Etruscans of Ca;les, a Lucumo or 
Etruscan noble, who assisted Romulus in the war against the Sa- 
bines. Each tribe was divided into 10 curias, and each -curias into 
10 gentes. The 30 curiee formed the Comitia Curiata, a sovereign 
assembly of the Patricians. This assembly elected the king, made 
the laws, and decided in all cases affecting the life of a citizen. 

To assist him in the government Romulus selected a number of 
aged men, forming a Senate, or Council of Elders, who were called 
Patres, or Senators. It consisted at first of 100 members, which 
number was increased to 200 when the Sabines were incorporated 
in the state. The 20 curias of the Ramnes and Titles each sent 
10 members to the senate, but the Luceres were not yet repre- 
sented. 

(ii.) Each of the three tribes was bound to furnish 1000 men for 
the infantry and 100 men for the cavalry. Thus 3000 foot-sol- 
diers and 300 horse-soldiers formed the original army of the Ro- 
man state, and were called a Legion. 

2. Reign of Numa Pompilius, b.c. 716-673. — On the death of 
Romulus, the Senate, at first, would not allow the election of a 
new king. The Senators enjoyed the royal power in rotation as 
Inter-reges, or between-kings. In this way a year passed. But 
the people at length insisted that a king should be chosen, and the 
Senate were obliged to give way. The choice fell upon the wise 
and pious Numa Pompilius, a native of the Sabine Cures Avho had 
married the daughter of Tatius. The forty-three years of Numa's 
reign glided away in quiet happiness without any war or any ca- 
lamity. 

As Romulus was the founder of the political institutions of 
Rome, so Numa Avas the author of the religious institutions. In- 
structed by the nymph Egeria, whom he met in the sacred grove 
of Aricia, he instituted the Pontiffs, four in number, with a Ponti- 
fex Maximus at their head, who had the general superintendence 



B.C. 716-641. REIGNS OE NUMA AND T. HOSTILIUS. 13 




Salii carrying the Ancilia, 



of religion ; the Augurs, also four in number, who consulted the 
■will of the gods on all occasions, both priA^ate and public ; three 
riamens, each of whom attended to the worship of separate deities 
— Jupiter,* Mars, and Qui- 
rinus; four Vestal Virgins, 
who kept alive the sacred 
fire of Vesta brought from 
Alba Longa ; and twelve 
Salii, or priests of Mars, 
who had the care of the 
sacred shields.! Numa re- 
formed the calendar, en- | 
couraged agriculture, and ' 
marked out the bounda- 
ries of property, which he 
placed imder the care of 
the god Terminus. He 
also built the temple of 
Janus, a god represented 
with two heads looking dif- 
ferent wa^'s. The gates of this temple were to be open during 
war and closed in time of peace. 

3. Reign of Tcllus Hostilius, b.c. 673-641. — Upon the death 
of Numa an interregnum again followed ; but soon afterward Tul- 
lus Hostilius, a Roman, was elected king. His reign was as war- 
like as that of Numa had been peaceful. The most memorable 
event in it is the destruction of Alba Longa. A quarrel having 
arisen between the two cities, and their armies having been drawn 
up in array against each other, the princes determined to avert the 
battle by a combat of champions chosen from each army. There 
were in the Roman army three brothers, born at the same birth, 
named Horatii ; and in the Alban army, in like manner, three 
brothers, born at the same birth, and called Curiatii. The two sets 
of brothers were chosen as champions, and it was agreed that the 
people to whom the conquerors belonged should rule the other. 
Two of the Horatii were slain, but the three Curiatii were wounded, 
and the sui"viving Horatius, who was unhurt, had recourse to strata- 
gem. He was unable to contend with the Curiatii united, but was 
more than a match for each of them separately. Taking to flight, 
he was followed by his three opponents at unequal distances. Sud- 



• The Flamen of Jupiter was called Flamen Dialis. 

t These shields were called Ancilia. One of tliese shields is said to have fall- 
rn from heaven ; and Numa ordered eleven others to be made exactly like it, that 
it might not be known and st«;)len. 



14 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. II. 

denly turning round, he slew, first one, then the second, and final- 
ly the third. The Romans were declared the conquerors, and the 
Albans their subjects. But a tragical event followed. As Hora- 
tius was entering Rome, bearing his threefold spoils, his sister met 
him, and recognized on his shoulders the cloak of one of the Curi- 
atii, her betrothed lover. She burst into such passionate grief that 
the anger of her brother was kindled, and, stabbing her with his 
sword, he exclaimed, "So perish every Roman woman who bewails 
a foe." For this murder he was condemned by the two judges of 
blood to be hanged upon the fatal tree, but he appealed to the peo- 
ple, and they gave him his life. 

Shortly afterward Tullus Hostilius made war against the Etrus- 
cans of Fidence and Veil. The Albans, under their dictator Met- 
tius FufFetius, followed him to the war as the subjects of Rome. 
In the battle against the Etruscans, the Alban dictator, faithless 
and insolent, withdrew to the hills, but wlien the Etruscans Avere 
defeated he descended to the plain, and congratulated the Roman 
king. Tullus pretended to be deceived. On the following day 
he summoned the two armies to receive their praises and rewards. 
The Albans came Avithout arms, and were surrounded by the Ro- 
man troops. They then heard their sentence. Their dictator 
was to be torn in pieces by horses driven opposite ways; their 
city was to be razed to the ground ; and they themselves, with 
their wives and children, transported to Rome. Tullus assigned 
to them the Cielian Hill for their habitation. Some of the noble 
families of Alba were enrolled among the Roman patricians, but 
the great mass of the Alban people were not admitted to the priv- 
ileges of the ruling class. They were the origin of the Roman 
Plebs, who were thus quite distinct from the Patricians and their 
Clients. The Patricians still formed exclusively the Populus, or 
Roman people, properly so called. The Plebs were a subject- 
class without any share in the government. 

After carrying on several other wars Tullus fell sick, and sought 
to win the favor of the gods, as Numa had done, by pi-ayers and 
divination. But Jupiter was angry Avith him, and smote him and 
his Avhole house Avith fire from heaven. Thus perished Tullus, 
after a reign of thirty-tAvo years. 

4. Reign op Angus Marcius, b.c. 640-616. — Ancus Marcius, 
the successor of Tullus Hostilius, Avas a Sabine, being the son of 
Nunia's daughter. He sought to tread in the footsteps of his 
grandfather by reviving the religious ceremonies Avhich had fallen 
into neglect ; but a Avar with the Latins called him from the pur- 
suits of peace. He conquered several of the Latin cities, and re- 
moved many of the inhabitants to Rome, Avherc he assigned them 



B.C. 640-616. REIGN OF ANGUS MARGIUS. 



15 



the Aventine for their habitation. Thus the number of the Ple- 
beians was greatly enlarged. Ancus instituted the Fetiales, whose 
duty it was to demand satisfaction from a foreign state when any 
dispute arose, to determine the circumstances under which hostili- 
ties might be commenced, and to perform the proper religious rites 
on the declaration of war. He also founded a colony at Ostia at 
the mouth of the Tiber, built a fortress on the Janiculum as a pro- 
tection against the Etruscans, and united it with the city by a bridge 
across the Tiber, called the Pons Sublicius, because it was made 
of wooden piles, and erected a prison to restrain offenders. He 
died after a reign of twenty-four years. 




Aich ot \olatene 



M>4><^5>d. 




Pons Sublicius, restored l)y Canina. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OP 
THE REPUBLIC DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS. 

B.C. 616-498. o 

5. Reign op Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, or the Elder Tar- 
QUiN, B.C. 616-578. — The fifth king of Rome was an Etruscan by 
birth, but a Greek by descent. His father Demaratus was a wealthy 
citizen of Corinth, who settled in the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, 
where he married an Etruscan wife. Their son married Tanaquil, 
who belonged to one of the noblest families in Tai'quinii, and him- 
self became a Lucumo or a noble in the state. But he asjnred to 
still higher honors ; and, urged on by his wife, who was an ambi- 
tious woman, he resolved to try his fortune at Rome. According- 
ly, he set out for this city, accompanied by a large train of follow- 
ers. When he had reached the Janiculum an eagle seized his cap, 
and, after carrying it away to a great height, placed it again upon 
his head. Tanaquil, who was skilled in the Etruscan science of 
augury, bade her husband hope for the highest honors. Her pre- 
dictions were soon verified. He took the name of Lucius Tar- 
quinius Priscus, and gained the favor both of Ancus Marcius and 
the people. Ancus appointed the stranger guardian of his chil- 
dren ; and, when he died, the senate and the people unanimously 
elected Tawquin to the vacant throne. 

The reign of Tarquin was distinguished by great exploits in war 
and by gi'eat works in peace. He defeated the Sabines, and took 
their town Collatia, which he placed under his nephew Egerius, 
who was thence called Collatinus. He also captured many of the 
Latin towns, and became the ruler of all Latium ; but the import- 
ant works which he executed in peace have rendered his name still 
more famous. The great cloaca^, or sewers, by which he drained 



B.C. 616-578. REIGN OF LUCIUS T. PRISCUS. 17 

the lower parts of the city, still remain, after so many ages, with 
not a stone displaced. He laid out the Circus Maximus, and insti- 
tuted the great or Roman games performed in the circus. He also 
made some changes in the constitution of the state. He added to 




cloaca Maxima. 

the Senate 100 new members, taken from the Luceres, the third 
tribe, and called patres minorum gentium, to distinguish them from 
the old Senators, who were now termed ;ja^?es majorum gentmm. 
To the three centuries of equites established by Romulus he wished 
to add three new centuries, and to call them after himself and two 
of his friends. But his plan Avas opposed by the augur Attus Na- 
vius, who said that the gods forbade it. The tale runs that the 
king, to test the augur, asked him to divine whether what he was 
thinking of could be done. After consulting the heavens, the au- 
gur replied that it could ; whereupon the king said, " I was think- 
ing that thou shouldst cut this whetstone with a razor." Navius, 
without a moment's hesitation, took a razor and cut it in twain! 
In consequence of this miracle, Tarquin gave up his design of es- 
tablishing new centuries ; but with each of the former centuries he 
associated another under the same name, so that henceforth there 
were the first and second Ramnes, Titles, and Luceres. The num- 
ber of Vestal Virgins was also increased from four to six, the two 
new vestals being probably taken from the Luceres. 

Tarquin had a favorite, Servius Tullius, said to have been the 
son of a female slave taken at the capture of the Latin tOAvn Cor- 
niculum. His infancy was marked by prodigies which foreshad- 
owed his future greatness. On one occasion a flame played around 
his head, as he was asleep, without harming him. Tanaquil fore- 
saw the greatness of the boy, and from this time he was brought up 
as the king's child. Tarquin afterward gave him his daughter in 
marriage, and left the government in his hands. But the sons 
of Ancus Marcius, fearing lest Tarquin should transmit the crown 

B 



18 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. III. 

to his son-in-law, hired two countrymen to assassinate the king. 
These men, feigning to have a quarrel, came before the king to 
have their dispute decided, and while he was listening to the com- 
plaint of one, the other gave him a deadly wound with his axe. 
But the sons of Ancus did not reap the fruit of their crime ; for 
Tanaquil, pretending that the king's wound was not mortal, told 
them that he would soon return, and that he had, meantime, ap- 
pointed Servius to act in his stead. Servius forthwith proceeded 
to discharge the duties of king, greatly to the satisfaction of the 
people ; and when the death of Tarquin could no longer be con- 
cealed, he was already in firm possession of the regal power. Tar- 
quin had reigned thirty-eight years. 

6. Servius Tullius, b.c. 578-534. — Servius thus succeeded to 
the throne without being elected by the Senate and the Assembly 
of the Curiae. The reign of this king is almost as barren of mili- 
tary exploits as that of Numa. His great deeds were those of 
peace ; and he was regarded by posterity as the author of the later 
Roman constitution, just as Romulus was of the earlier. Three im- 
portant acts are assigned to Servius by universal tradition. Of 
these the greatest was : 

I. The reform of the Roman Constitution. In this reform his 
two main objects were to give the Plebeians political rights, and to 
assign to property that influence in the state which had previously 
belonged exclusively to birth. To carry his purpose into effect he 
made a twofold division of the Roman people, one territorial and 
the other according to property. 

a. It must be recollected that the only existing political organi- 
zation was that of the Patricians into 3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 
gentes ; but Servius now divided the whole Roman territory into 
Thiriif Tribes, and, as this division was simply local, these tribes 
contained Plebeians as well as Patricians. But, though the insti- 
tution of the Thirty Tribes gave the Plebeians a political organiza- 
tion, it conferred upon them no political power, nor any right to 
take part in the elections, or in the management of public affairs. 
At a later time the tribes assembled in the forum for the transac- 
tion of business, and were hence called Comitia Tribnta. The Pa- 
tricians were then excluded from this assembly, which was sum- 
moned by the Tribunes of the Plebs, and was entirely Plebeian. 

b. The means by which Servius gave the Plebeians a share in 
the government was by establishing a new Popular Assembly, in 
which Patricians and Plebeians alike voted. It was so arranged 
that the wealthiest persons, whether Patricians or Plebeians, pos- 
sessed the chief power. In order to ascertain the property of each 
citizen, Servius instituted the Census, which was a register of Ro- 



B.C. 578-534. REIGN OF SERVIUS TULLIUS. 



\ 



man citizens and their propertj'. All Roman citizens possessing 
property to the amount of 12,500 asses and upward* were divided 
into five great Classes. The First Class contained the richest cit- 
izens, the Second Class the next in point of wealth, and so on. 
The whole arrangement was of a military character. Each of the 
five Classes was divided into a certain number of Centuries or Com- 
panies, half of which consisted of Seniores from the age of 46 to 
GO, and half of Juniores from the age of 17 to 45. All the Classes 
had to provide their own arms and armor, but the expense of the 
equipment was in proportion to the wealth of each Class. The 
Five Classes formed the infantry. To these five Classes were add- 
ed two centuries of smiths and carpenters, and two of trumpeters 
and horn-blowers. These four centuries voted with the Classes. 
Those persons whose property did not amount to 12,500 asses were 
not included in the Classes, and formed a single century. 

At the head of the Classes were the Equites or cavalry. These 
consisted of eighteen centuries, six being the old patrician Equites, 
as founded by Romulus and augmented by Tarquinius Priscus, and 
the other twelve being chosen from the chief plebeian families.! 

The Centuries formed the new National Assembly. They mus- 
tered as an army in the Campus Martins, or the Field of Mars, on 
the banks of the Tiber, outside the city. They voted by Centu- 
ries, and were hence called the Comitia Centuriata. Each Century 
counted as one vote, but did not consist of the same number of 
men. On the contrary, in order to give the preponderance to 

* The As -was originally a pound weight of copper of 12 ounces, 
t The following table will show the census of each class, and the number of 
centuries which each contained : 

Equites Centurise 18 

First Ci«ss.— Census, 100,000 asses and upward. » 

Centurise Seniorum 40 ) 

Centurise Juniorum 40 > 82 

, Centurise Fabrum (smiths and carpenters) . . 2) 

Second Class Census, T5,000 asses and upward. 

Centurifc Seniorum . ., 10) nn 

Centurioe Juniorum 10 j 

TJiird Ctoss.— Census, 50,000 asses and upward. 

Centurise Seniorum 10) on 

Centiirise Juniorum I'tj 



20 



Fourth Class. — Census, 25,000 asses and upward. 

Centurife Seniorum 10) 

Centurise Juniorum 10) 

Fifth Ctoss.— Census, 12,500 asses and upward. 

CenturifB Seniorum 15) 

Centuria; Juniorum 15 - 32 

Centurise cornicinum, tubicinum 2) 

Centurise capite censorum 1 

Sum total of the centurise 193 



20 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. III. 

wealth, the first or richest class contained a far greater number of 
Centuries than any of the other classes (as will be seen from the 
table below), although they must at the same time have included 
a much smaller number of men. The Equites and First Class 
alone amounted to 100 Centuries, or more than half of the total 
number ; so that, if they agreed to vote the same way, they pos- 
sessed at once an absolute majority. An advantage was also given 
to age ; for the Seniores, though possessing an equal number of 
votes, must of course have been very inferior in number to the Ju- 
n lores. 

Servius made the Comitia Centuriata the sovereign assembly of 
the nation ; and he accordingly transferred to it from the Comitia 
Curiata the right of electing kings and the higher magistrates, of 
enacting and repealing laws, and of deciding in cases of appeal 
from the sentence of a judge. But he did not dare to abolish the 
old Patrician assembly, and was even obliged to enact that no vote 
of the Comitia Centuriata should be valid till it had received the 
sanction of the Comitia Curiata. 

Thus, in consequence of the legislation, we shall find that Rome 
subsequently possessed three sovereign assemblies : 1. The Comitia 
Centuriata, consisting of both Patricians and Plebeians, and voting 
according to Centuries ; 2. The Comitia Curiata, consisting ex- 
clusively of Patricians, and voting according to Curiae ; 3. The 
Comitia Tributa, exclusively of Plebeians, and voting according to 
Tribes. 

II. The second great Avork of Servius was the extension of the 
Pomoerium, or hallowed boundary of the city, and the completion 
of the city by incorporating Avith it the Quirinal, Viminal, and Es- 
quiline Hills.* He surrounded the whole with a stone wall, called 
after him the wall of Servius Tullius ; and from the Porta Collina 
to the Esquiline Gate, where the hills sloped gently to the plain, 
he constructed a gigantic mound nearly a mile in length, and a 
moat 100 feet in breadth and 30 in depth, from which the earth of 
the mound was dug. Rome thus acquired a circumference of five 
miles, and this continued to be the legal extent of the city till the 
time of the emperors, although suburbs were added to it. 

III. An important alliance with the Latins, by which Rome and 
the cities of Latium became the members of one great league, was 
one of the great events which distinguished the reign of Servius. 

Servius gave his two daughters in marriage to the two sons of 
Tarquinius Priscus. Lucius, the elder, was married to a quiet and 

* The celebrated seven hills upon which Rome stood were the Palatine, Aven- 
tine, Capitoline, Caelian, Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquilian. The Mens Pincius 
wa3 not included within the Servian Wall. 



B.C. 578-534. REIGN OF SERVIUS TULLIUS. 



21 



gentle wife; Aruns, the younger, to an aspiring and ambitious 
woman. The character of the two brothers was the very opposite 
of the wives who had fallen to their lot ; for Lucius was proud and 
haughty, but Aruns unambitious and quiet. The wife of Aruns, 
enraged at the long life of her father, and fearing that at his death 



ROMA 




Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven Hills. 

her husband would tamely resign the sovereignty to his elder 
brother, resolved to murder both her father and husband. Her 
fiendish spirit put into the heart of Lucius thoughts of crime which 
he had never entertained before. Lucius made way with his wife, 
and the younger Tullia with her husband ; and the survivors, with- 



22 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. III. 

out even the show of mourning, were straightway joined in unhal- 
lowed wedlock. Tullia now incessantly urged her husband to 
murder her father, and thus obtain the kingdom which he so ar- 
dently coveted. Tarquin formed a conspiracy with the Patricians, 
who were enraged at the reforms of Servius ; and when the plot 
was ripe he entered the forum arrayed in the kingly robes, seated 
himself in the royal chair, in the senate-house, and ordered the 
senators to be summoned to him as their king. At the first news 
of the commotion Servius hastened to the senate-house, and, stand- 
ing at the doorway, bade Tarquin to come down from the throne ; 
but Tarquin sprang forward, seized the old man, and flung him 
down the stone steps. Covered with blood, the king hastened 
home ; but, before he reached it, he was overtaken by the servants 
of Tarquin, and murdered. Tullia drove to the senate-house and 
greeted her husband as king ; but her transports of joy struck 
even him with horror. He bade her go home ; and, as she was 
returning, her charioteer pulled up and pointed out the corpse of 
her father lying in his blood across the road. She commanded 
him to drive on; the blood of her father spirted over the carriage 
and on her dress ; and from that day forward the place bore the 
name of the Wicked Street. The body lay unburied ; for Tarquin 
said, scoffingly, "Romulus too went without burial;" and this im- 
pious mockery is said to have given rise to his surname of Su- 
perbus, or the Proud. Servius had reigned forty-four years. 

7. Reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, or. The Proud, 
B.C. 531-510. — Tarquin commenced his reign without any of the 
forms of election. One of his first acts was to abolish all the priv- 
ileges which had been conferred upon the Plebeians by Servius. _ 
He also compelled the poor to work at miserable wages upon his ^ 
magnificent buildings, and the hardships which they suffered werej^ 
so great that many put an end to their lives. But he did not con- 
fine his oppressions to the poor. All the senators and patricians 
whom he mistrusted, or whose wealth he coveted, were put to death 
or driven into exile. He surrounded himself with a body-guard, 
by whose means he was enabled to carry out his designs. But, al- 
though a tyrant at home, he raised the state to great influence and 
power among the surrounding nations, partly by his alliances and 
partly by his conquests. He gave his daughter in marriage to 
Octavius Mamftius, of Tusculum, the most powerful of the Latins, 
by whose means he acquired great influence in Latium. Any Lat- 
in chiefs like Turnus Herdonius, who attempted to resist him, were 
treated as traitors, and punished with death. At the solemn meet- 
ing of the Latins at the Alban Mount, Tarquin sacrificed the bull 
on behalf of all the allies, and distributed the flesh to the people 
of the league. 



B.C. 534-510. EEIGN OF L. TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. 23 

Strengthened by this Latin alliance, Tarqnin turned his arms 
against the Volscians. He took the wealthy town of Suessa Po- 
metia, with the spoils of which he commenced the erection of a 
magnificent temple on the Capitoline Hill, which his father had 
vowed. This temple was dedicated to the three gods of the Latin 
and Etruscan religions, Jupiter, Juno, and Minei-va. A human 
head (captit^, fresh bleeding and undecayed, is said to have been 
found by the workmen as they were digging the foundations, and 
being accepted as a sign that the place was destined to become the 
head of the world, the name of Capitolium was given to the tem- 
ple, and thence to the hill. In a stone vault beneath were deposit- 
ed the Sibylline books, containing obscure and prophetic sayings. 
One day a Sibyl, a prophetess from Cumte, appeared before the 
king and offered to sell him nine books. Upon his refusing to buy 
them she went away and burned three, and then demanded the 
same sum for the remaining six as she had asked for the nine. 
But the king laughed, whereupon she again burnt three and then 
demanded the same sum as before for the remaining three. 
Wondering at this strange conduct, the king purchased the books. 
Thev were placed under the care of two patricians, and were con- 
sulted when the state was in danger. 

Tarquin next attacked Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which re- 
fused to enter into the league. Unable to take the city by force, 
he had recourse to stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be 
ill treated by his father, and covered with the bloody marks of 
stripes, fled to Gabii. The infatuated inhabitants intrusted him 
with the command of their troops ; and Avhen he had obtained the 
unlimited confidence of the citizens, he sent a messenger to his fa- 
ther to inquire how he should deliver the city into his hands. The 
king, who was walking in his garden Avhen the messenger arrived, 
made no reply, but kept striking off the heads of the tallest pop- 
pies with his stick. Sextus took the hint. He put to death or 
banished, on false charges, all the leading men of the place, and 
then had no difficulty in compelling it to submit to his father. 

In the midst of his prosperity Tarquin was troubled by a strange 
portent. A serpent crawled out from the altar in the royal pal- 
ace, and seized on the entrails of the victim. The king, in fear, 
sent his two sons, Titus and Aruns, to consult the oracle at Del- 
phi. They were accompanied by their cousin L. Junius Brutus. 
One of the sisters of Tarquin had been married to M. Brutus, a 
man of great wealth, who died, leaving two sons under age.* Of 
these the elder was killed by Tarquin, who coveted their posses- 
sions ; the younger escaped his brother's fate only by feigning 
• See genealogical table on the next page. 



24 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



Chap. III. 



idiotcy. On arriving at Delphi, Brutus propitiated the priestess 
with the gift of a golden stick inclosed in a hollow staff. After 
executing the king's commission, Titus and Aruns asked the priest- 
ess who was to reign at Rome after their father. The priestess 
replied, whichsoever should first kiss his mother. The princes 
agreed to keep the matter secret from Sextus, who was at Rome, 
and to cast lots between themselves. Brutus, who better under- 
stood the meaning of the oracle, fell, as if by chance, when they 
quitted the temple, and kissed the earth, the mother of them all. 

Soon afterward Tarquin laid siege to Ai'dea, a city of the Rutu- 
lians. The place could not be taken by force, and the Roman 
army lay encamped beneath the walls. Here, as the king's sons, 
and their cousin Tarquinius Collatinus, were feasting together, a 
dispute arose about the virtue of their Avives, As nothing was do- 
ing in the field, they mounted their horses to visit their homes by 
surprise. They first went to Rome, where they surprised the 
king's daughters at a splendid banquet. They then hastened to 
Collatia, and there, though it was late in the night, they found Lu- 
cretia, the wife of Collatinus, spinning amid her handmaids. The 
beauty and virtue of Lucretia excited the evil passions of Sextus. 
A few days after he returned to Collatia, where he was hospitably 
received by Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In the dead of 
night he entered her chamber with a drawn sword, thi-eatening 
that, if she did not yield to his desires, he would kill her and lay 
by her side a slave with his throat cut, and would declare that he 
had killed them both taken in adultery. Fear of such a shame 
forced Lucretia to consent ; but, as soon as Sextus had departed, 
she sent for her husband and father. Collatinus came, accom- 
panied by L. Brutus, her father, Lucretius, brought with him P. 
Valerius. They found her in an agony of sorrow. She told them 
what had happened, enjoined them to avenge her dishonor, and 

The following genealogical table exhibits the relationship of the family : 
Demaratus of Corinth. 
I 



Tarquinius Peisous. 
I 



Tarquinia, 

married 

Servius TuUius. 



M. Brutus, 

put to 

death by 

Tarquinius. 



I 
Tarquinia, 

married 
M. Brutus. 

L. Bbtitds, 
the 

Consul. 



L. Tarquinius 

SUPERBUS. 



Aruns. Egeriua, 

commander of 
Collatia. 



Titus. Sextus. Aruns. 



Tarquinius 

Collatinus, 

married 

Lucretia. 



B.C. 509. THE KEPUBLIC. 25 

then stabbed herself to the heart. They all swore to avenge her. 
Brutus threw off his assumed stupidity, and placed himself at their 
head. They carried the corpse into the market-place of CoUatia. 
There the people took up arms, and renounced the Tarquins. A 
number of young men attended the funeral procession to Eome. 
Brutus summoned the people, and related the deed of shame. All 
classes were inflamed with the same indignation. A decree was 
passed deposing the king, and banishing him and his family from 
the city. Brutus now set out for the army at Ardea. Tarquinius 
meantime had hastened to Rome, but found the gates closed against 
him. Brutus was received with joy at Ardea ; and the army re- 
nounced their allegiance to the tyrant. Tarquin, Avith his two 
sons, Titus and Aruns, took refuge at Care, in Etruria. Sextus 
fled to Gabii, where he was shortly after murdered by the friends 
of those whom he had put to death. 

Tarquin had reigned 22 years when he was driven out of Eome. 
In memory of this event an annual festival Avas celebrated on the 
24th of February, called the Regifugium or Fugalia. 

The Republic. — Thus ended monarchy at Rome. Tarquin the 
Proud had made the name of king so hateful that the people re- 
solved to intrust the kingly power to two men, who Avere only to 
hold office for a year. In later times they Avere called Consuls, but 
at their first institution they were named Pi-cetois. They Avere 
elected by the Comitia Curiata, and possessed the same honors as 
the king had had. The first consuls Avere L. Brutus and Tarquin- 
ius Collatinus (b.c. 509). But the people so hated the A'ery name 
and race of Tarquin, that Collatinus Avas obliged to resign his of- 
fice and retire from Rome. P. Valerius Avas elected consul in his 
place. 

Meantime embassadors came to Rome from Tarquin, asking 
that his priA-ate property should be given up to him. The demand 
seemed just to the Senate and the People ; but, Avhile the embassa- 
dors were making preparation for caiTying aAvay the property, they 
formed a conspiracy among the young Roman nobles for the resto- 
ration of the royal family. The plot Avas discovered by means of 
a slave, and among the conspirators A\'ere found the tAvo sons of 
Brutus himself. But the consul would not pardon his guilty chil- 
dren, and ordered the lictors* to put them to death with the other 
traitors. The agreement to surrender the property w^as made void 
by this attempt at treason. The royal goods Avere given up to the 
people to plunder. 

* The Lictors were public officers who attended upon the Roman magistrate. 
Each consul had twelve lictors. They carried upon their shoulders fasces, which 
were rods bound in the form of a bundle, and containing an axe in the middle. 



26 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. III. 

As the plot had failed, Tarquin now endeavored to recover the 
throne by arms. The people of Tarquinii and Veil espoused the 
cause of their Etruscan kinsmen, and marched against Rome. 
The two Consuls advanced to meet them. When Aruns, the 
king's son, saw Brutus at the head of the Roman cavalry, he spur- 
red his horse to the charge. Brutus did not shrink from the com- 
bat ; and both fell from their horses mortally wounded by each 
other's spears. A desperate battle between the two armies now 
followed. Both parties claimed the victory, till a voice was heard 
in the dead of night, proclaiming that the Romans had conquered, 
as the Etruscans had lost one man more. Alarmed at this, the 
Etruscans fled ; and Valerius, the surviving Consul, returned to 
Rome, carrying with him the dead body of Brutus. The matrons 
mourned for Brutus a whole year, because he had revenged the 
death of Lucretia. 

This was the first war for the restoration of Tarquin. 

Valerius was now left without a colleague ; and as he began to 
build a house on the top of the hill Velia, which looked down upon 
the forum, the people feared that he was aiming at kingly power. 
Thereupon Valerius not only pulled down the house, but, calling 
an assembly of the people, he ordered the lictors to lower the fas- 
ces before them, as an acknowledgment that their power Avas su- 
perior to his. He likewise brought forward a law enacting that 
every citizen who was condemned by a magistrate should have a 
right of appeal to the people. Valerius became, in consequence, 
so popular that he received the surname of Puhlicola, or "The 
People's Friend." 

Valerius then summoned an assembly for the election of a suc- 
cessor to Brutus, and Sp. Lucretius was chosen. Lucretius, how- 
ever, lived only a few days, and M. Horatius was elected consul in 
his place. It was Horatius who had the honor of consecrating 
the temple on the Capitol, which Tarquin had left unfinished when 
he was driven from the throne. 

The second year of the republic (b.c. 508) witnessed the second 
attempt of Tarquin to recover the crown. He now applied for 
help to Lars Porsena, the powerful ruler of the Etruscan town of 
Clusium, who marched against Rome at the head of a vast army. 
The Romans could not meet him in the field ; and Porsena seized 
without opposition the Janiculum, a hill immediately opposite the 
city, and separated from it only by the Tiber. Rome was now in 
the greatest danger, and the Etruscans would have entered the 
city by the Sublician bridge had not Horatius Codes, with two 
comrades, kept the whole Etruscan army at bay while the Romans 
broke down the bridge behind him. When it was giving way he 



B.C. 508. THE KEPUBLIC. 27 

sent back his two companions, and withstood alone the attacks of 
the foe till the cracks of the falling timbers and the shouts of his 
countrymen told him that the bridge had fallen. Then prayiug, 
" O Father Tiber, take me into thy charge and bear me up !" he 
plunged into the stream and swam across in safety, amid the ar- 
rows of the enemy. The state raised a statue in his honor, and 
allowed him as much land as he could plow round in one day. 
Few legends are more celebrated in Roman history than this gal- 
lant deed of Horatius, and Roman writers loved to tell 

"How well Horatius kept the bridge 
In the brave days of old." 

The Etruscans now proceeded to lay siege to the city, which 
soon began to suffer from famine. Thereupon a young Roman, 
named C. Mucins, resolved to deliver his country by murdering the 
invading king. He accordingly went over to the Etruscan camp ; 
but, ignorant of the person of Porsena, killed the royal secretary 
instead. Seized and threatened with torture, he thrust his right 
hand into the fire on the altar, and there let it burn, to show how 
little he heeded pain. Astonished at his courage, the king bade 
him depart in peace ; and Mucins, out of gratitude, advised him 
to make peace with Rome, since three hundred noble youths, he 
said, had sworn to take the life of the king, and he was the first 
upon whom the lot had fallen. Mucius was henceforward called 
Scffivola, or ihQ Left-handed, because his right hand had been burnt 
off. Porsena, alarmed for his life, which he could not secure 
against so many desperate men, forthwith offered peace to the Ro- 
mans on condition of their restoring to the Veientines the land 
which they had taken from them. These terms were accepted, 
and Porsena withdrew his troops from the Janiculum after receiv- 
ing ten youths and ten maidens as hostages from the Romans. 
Cloelia, one of the maidens, escaped from the Etruscan camp, and 
swam across the Tiber to Rome. She was sent back by the Ro- 
mans to Porsena, who was so amazed at her courage that he not 
only set her at liberty, but allowed her to take with her those of 
the hostages whom she pleased. 

Thus ended the second attempt to restore the Tarquins by force.* 
After Porsena quitted Rome, Tarquin took refuge with his son- 
in-law, Octavius Mamilius, of Tusculum. The thirty Latin cities 
now espoused the cause of the exiled king, and declared war 
against Rome. The contest was decided by the battle of the Lake 

* There i.=>, however, reason to believe that these brilliant stories conceal one of 
the earliest and greatest disasters of the city. It appears that Rome was really 
conquered by Porsena, and lost all the territory which the kings had gained on 
the light side of the Tiber. Hence we find the thirty tribes, established by Ser- 
ving TuUius, reduced to twenty after the war with Porsena. 



28 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. III. 

Regillus, whicli was long celebrated in Roman story, and the ac- 
count of whicli resembles one of the battles in the Iliad. The Ro- 
mans were commanded by the Dictator,* A. Postumius, and by T. 
jEbutius, the Master of the Horse ; at the head of the Latins were 
Tarquin and Octavius Mamilius. The struggle was fierce and 
bloody, but the Latins at length fled. Almost all the chiefs on 
either side fell in the conflict, or were grievously wounded. Titus, 
the son of Tarquin, was killed ; and the aged king was wounded, 
but escaped with his life. It was related in the old tradition that 
the Romans gained this battle by the assistance of the gods Castor 
and Pollux, who were seen charging the Latins at the head of the 
Roman cavalry, and who afterward carried to Rome the tidings of 
the victory. A temple was built in the forum on the spot where 
they appeared, and their festival was celebrated yearly. • 

This was the third and last attempt to restore the Tarquins. 
The Latins were completely humbled by this victory. Tarquinius 
Superbus had no other state to which he could apply for assistance. 
He had already survived all his family ; and he now fled to Cumae, 
where he died a wretched and childless old man (b.c. 496). 

* The Dictator was an extraordinary magistrate appointed by one of the Con- 
suls in seasons of great peril. He possessed absolute power. Twenty-four lie- 
tors attended him, bearing the axes in the fasces, even in the city ; and from his 
decision there was no appeal. He could not hold the office longer than six months, 
and he usually laid it down much sooner. He appointed a Magister Equitum^ 
or Master of the Horse, who acted as his lieutenant. From the time of the ap- 
pointment of the Dictator, all the other magistrates, even the Consuls, ceased to 
exercise any power. 




Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by Lictors. 





The Campagna of Kome. 



CHAPTER IV. 

FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE DECEMVJ- 

KATE. B.C. 498-451. 

The history of Rome for the next 150 years consists internally 
of the struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians, and exter- 
nally of the wars with the Etruscans, Volscians, ^quians, and oth- 
er tribes in the immediate neighborhood of Rome. 

The internal history of Rome during this period is one of great 
interest. The Patricians and Plebeians formed two distinct or- 
ders in the state. After the banishment of the kings the Patri- 
cians retained exclusive possession of political power. The Ple- 
beians, it is true, could vote in the Comitia Centuriata, but, as they 
were mostly poor, they were outvoted by the Patricians and their 
clients. The Consuls and other magistrates were taken entirely 
from the Patricians, who also possessed the exclusive knowledge 
and administration of the law. In one word, the Patricians were 
a ruling and the Plebeians a subject class. But this was not all. 



30 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. IV. 

The Patricians formed not only a separate class, but a separate 
caste, not marrj'ing with the Plebeians, and worshiping the gods 
with different religious rites. If a Patrician man married a Ple- 
beian wife, or a Patrician woman a Plebeian husband, the state re- 
fused to recognize the marriage, and the offspring was treated as 
illegitimate. 

The Plebeians had to complain not only of political, but also of 
private wrongs. The law of debtor and creditor was very severe 
at Rome. If the borrower did not pay the money by the time 
agreed upon, his person was seized by the creditor, and he was 
obliged to work as a slave.* Nay, in certain cases he might even 
be put to death by the creditor ; and if there were more than one, 
his body might be cut in pieces and divided among them. The 
whole weight of this oppressive law fell upon the Plebeians ; and 
what rendered the case still harder was, that they were frequently 
compelled, through no fault of their own, to become borrowers. 
They were small landholders, living by cultivating the soil with 
their own hands ; but as they had to serve in the army without 
pay, they had no means of engaging laborers in their absence. 
Hence, on their return home, they were left without the means of 
subsistence or of purchasing seed for the next crop, and borrowing 
was their only resource. 

Another circumstance still farther aggravated the hardships of 
the Plebeians. The state possessed a large quantity of land called 
Ager Publicus, or the "Public Land." This land originally be- 
longed to the kings, being set apart for their support ; and it was 
constantly increased by conquest, as it Avas the practice on the sub- 
jugation of a people to deprive tliem of a certain portion of their 
land. This public land was let by the state subject to a rent ; 
but as the Patricians possessed the political power, they divided 
the public land among themselves, and paid for it only a nominal 
rent. Thus ^he Plebeians, by whose blood and unpaid toil much 
of this land had been won, were excluded from all participation 
in it. 

It was no-t to be expected that the Plebeians would submit to 
such grievous injustice. The Contest was twofold. It was a 
struggle of a subject against a ruling class, and of rich against 
poor. The Plebeians strove to obtain an equal share not only in 
the political power, but also in the public land. 

The cruelty of the Patrician creditors Avas the most pressing 

evil, and led to the first reform. In B.C. 494 the Plebeians, after 

a campaign against the Volscians, instead of returning to Rome, 

retired to the Sacred Mount, a hill about two miles from the city, 

* Debtors thus given over to their creditors were called AddicH. 



B.C. 494. THE PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. 31 

near the junction of the Arno and the Tiber. Here they determ- 
ined to settle and found a new town, leaving Rome to the Patri- 
cians and their clients. This event is known as the Secession to 
the Sacred Mount. The Patricians, alarmed, sent several of their 
number to persuade the Plebeians to return. Among the deputies 
was the aged Meneniiis Agrippa, who had great influence with the 
Plebeians. He related to them the celebrated fable of the Belly 
and the Members. 

"Once upon a time," he said, "the Members refused to work 
any longer for the Bell}', which led a lazy life, and grew fat upon 
their toils. But receiving no longer any nourishment from the 
Belly, they soon began to pine away, and found that it was to the 
Belly they owed their life and strength." 

The fable was understood, and the Plebeians agreed to treat 
with the Patricians. It was decided that existing debts should be 
canceled, and that all debtors in bondage should be restored to 
freedom. It was necessary, however, to provide security for the 
future, and the Plebeians therefore insisted that two of their own 
number should be elected annually, to whom the Plebeians might 
appeal for assistance against the decisions of the Patrician magis- 
trates. These officers were called Tribunes of the Plehs. Their 
persons were declared sacred and inviolate \ they were never to 
quit tlie city during their year of office ; and their houses were to 
remain open day and night, that all who were in need of help 
might apply to them. Their number was soon afterward increased 
to five, and at a later time to ten. They gradually gained more 
and more power, and obtained the riglit of putting a veto* upon 
any public business.f At the Sacred Mount the Plebeians also 
obtained the piivilege of having two^^diles of their order appoint- 
ed. These officers had at a later time the care of the public build- 
ings and roads, and the superintendence of the police of the city. 

Emboldened by this success, the Plebeians now Remanded a 
share in the -public land. And in this they found an unexpected 
supporter among the Patricians themselves. Sp. Cassius, one of 
the most distinguished men in the state, who had formed the league 
between the Romans, Latins, and»Hernicans, brought forward in 
his third consulship a law, by which a portion of the public land 
Avas to be divided among the Plebeians (b.c. 48G). This was the 
first Afjrarian Laio mentioned in Roman history. It must be rec- 

* This Avas called the light oi inter ce^f^ion., from intercedo., '•'• to come between." 
t The Tribunes were originally elected at the Comitia of the Centurie.?, where 
the Influence of the Patricians was predominant ; but by the Publilian Law, 
proposed by the tribune Publilius Volero, and passed b.c. 471, the election was 
transferred to the Comitia of the Tribes, by which means the Plebeians obtained 
the uncontrolled election of their own officers. 



32 HISTOEY OF ROME. Chap. IV. 

ollected that all the Agrarian laws dealt only with the public land, 
and never touched the property of private persons. Notwithstand- 
ing the violent opposition of the Patricians, the law was passed ; 
but it was never carried into execution, and the Patricians soon 
revenged themselves upon its author. In the following year he 
was accused of aiming at the kingly power, and condemned to 
death. He was scourged and beheaded, and his house razed to 
the ground. 

We now turn to the external history of Rome. Under the 
kings Rome had risen to a superiority over her neighbors, and had 
extended her dominion over the southern part of Etruria and the 
greater part of Latium. The early history of the republic presents 
a very diiFerent spectacle. For the next 100 years she is engaged 
in a difficult and often dubious struggle with the Etruscans on the 
one hand, and the Volscians and JEquians on the other. It would 
be unprofitable to relate the details of these petty campaigns ; but 
there are three celebrated legends connected with them which 
must not be passed over. 

1. CoRiOLANus AND THE VoLSCiANS, B.C. 488. — C. Marcius, sur- 
named Coriolanus, from his valor at the capture of the Latin town 
of Corioli, was a brave but haughty Patrician youth. He was 
hated by the Plebeians, who refused him the consulship. This 
inflamed him with anger ; and accordingly, when the city was suf- 
fering from famine, and a present of corn came from Sicily, Corio- 
lanus advised the Senate not to distribute it among the Plebeians 
unless they gave up their Tribunes. Such insolence enraged the 
Plebeians, who would have torn him to pieces on the spot had not 
the tribunes summoned him before the Comitia of the Tribes. 
Coriolanus himself breathed nothing but defiance ; and his kins- 
men and friends interceded for him in vain. He was condemned 
to exile. He now turned his steps to Antium, the capital of the 
Volscians, and offered to lead them against Rome. Attius Tul- 
lius, king of the Volscians, persuaded his countrymen to appoint 
Coriolanus their general. Nothing could check his victorious 
jn-ogress ; town after town fell before him ; and he advanced with- 
in five miles of the city, ravaging the lands of the Plebeians, but 
sparing those of the Patricians. The city was filled with despair. 
The ten first men in the Senate were sent in hopes of moving his 
compassion. But they were received with the utmost sternness, 
and told that the city must submit to his absolute will. Next day 
the pontiffs, augurs, flamens, and all the priests, came in their 
robes of office, and in vain prayed him to spare the city. All 
seemed lost ; but Rome was saved by her women. Next morning 
the noblest matrons, headed by Veturia, the aged mother of Cori- 



B.C. 488. COKIOLANUS AND THE VOLSCIANS. 



33 



olanus, and by his wife Volumnia, holding her little children by 
the hand, came to his tent. Their lamentations turned him from 
his purpose. "Mother," he said, bursting into tears, "thou hast 
saved Rome, but lost thy son ! " He then led the Volscians home, 
but they put him to death because he had spared Rome. Others 




The Environs of Kome. 

relate that he lived among the Volscians to a great age, and was 
often heard to say that "none but an old man can feel how 
wretched it is to live in a foreign land." 

2. The Fabia Gens and the Veientines, b.c. 477. — The Fabii 
were one of the most powerful of the Patrician houses. For seven 
successive years one of the Consuls was always a Fabius. The 

O 



34 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. IV. 

Fabii had been among the leading opponents of the Agrarian Law ; 
and Ka^so Fabius had taken an active part in obtaining the con- 
demnation of Sp. Cassias. But shortly afterward we find this 
same Kajso the advocate of the popular rights, and proposing that 
the Agrarian Law of Cassius should be carried into effect. He 
was supported in his new views by his powerful house, though the 
reasons for their change of opinion we do not know. But the Fa- 
bii made no impression upon the great body of the Patricians, and 
only earned for themselves the hearty hatred of their order. Find- 
ing that they could no longer live in peace at Rome, they determ- 
ined to leave the city, and found a separate settlement, where they 
might still be useful to their native land. One of the most formi- 
dable enemies of the republic was the Etruscan city of Veii, situate 
about twelve miles from Rome. Accordingly, the Fabian house, 
consisting of 306 males of full age, accompanied by their wives and 
children, clients and dependents, marched out of Rome by the right- 
hand arch of the Carmental Gate, and proceeded straight to the 
Cremera, a river which flows into the Tiber below Veii. On the 
Cremera they established a fortified camp, and, sallying thence, they 
laid waste the Veientine territory. For two years they sustained 
the whole weight of the Veientine Avar; and all the attempts of 
the Veientines to dislodge them proved in A-ain. But at length 
they were enticed into an ambuscade, and were all slain. The 
settlement was destroyed, and no one of the house survived except 
a boy who had been left behind at Rome, and who became the an- 
cestor of the Fabii, afterward so celebrated in Roman history. 
The Fabii were sacrificed to the hatred of the Patricians; for the 
consul T. Menenius was encamped a short way off at the time, 
and he did nothing to save them, 

3. CiNCiNNATUS AND THE JEquians, B.C. 458. — The ^quians in 
their numerous attacks upon the Roman territory generally occu- 
pied Mount Algidus, which formed a part of the group of the Al- 
ban Hills in Latiura. It was accordingly upon this mount that 
the battles between the Romans and ^quians most frequently took 
place. In the year 458 b.c. the Roman consul L. Minuciiis was 
defeated on the Algidus, and surrounded in his camp. Five horse- 
men, who made their escape before the Romans were completely 
encompassed, brought the tidings to Rome. The Senate forth- 
with appointed L. Cincinnatus dictator. 

L. Cincinnatus was one of the heroes of old Roman story. 
"When the deputies of the Senate came to him to announce his 
elevation to the dictatorship they found him driving a plow, and 
clad only in his tunic or shirt. They bade him clothe himself, 
that he might hear the commands of the Senate. He put on his 



B.C.458. CINCINNATUS AND THE ^QUIANS. 35 

toga, which his wife Racilia brought him. The deputies then told 
him of the peril of the Roman army, and that he had been made 
Dictator. The next morning, before daybreak, he appeared in 
the forum, and ordered all the men of military age to meet him in 
the evening in the Field of Mars, with food for five days, and each 
with twelve stakes. His orders were obeyed ; and with such speed 
did he march, that by midnight he reached Mount Algidus. Plac- 
ing his men around the JEquian camp, he told them to raise the 
war-cry, and at the same time to begin digging a trench and rais- 
ing a mound, on the top of which the stakes were to be driven in. 
The other Roman army, which was shut in, hearing the war-cry, 
burst forth from their camp, and fought with the ^quians all night. 
The Dictator's troops thus worked without interruption, and com- 
pleted the intrenchment by the morning. The -^quians found 
themselves hemmed in between the two armies, and were forced 
to surrender. The Dictator made them pass under the yoke, which 
was formed by two spears fixed upright in the ground, while a third 
was fastened across them. Cincinnatus entered Rome in triumph 
only twenty-four hours after he had quitted it, having thus saved a 
whole Roman anny from destruction. 

In reading the wars of tlie early Republic, it is important to rec- 
ollect the League formed by Spurius Cassius, the author of the 
Agrarian Law, between the Romans, Latins, and Hernicans. This 
League, to which allusion has been already made, Avas of the most 
intimate kind, and the armies of the three states fought by each 
other's sides. It was by means of this League that the ^quians 
and "Volscians were kept in check, for they were two of tlie most 
warlike nations in Italy, and would have been more than a match 
for the unsupported arras of Rome. 




Tarpeian Rock. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 451-449. 

Feom the Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius to the appointment of the 
Decemvirs was a period of more than thirty years. During the 
whole of this time the struggle between the Patricians and the 
Plebeians was increasing. The latter constantly demanded, and 
the former as firmly refused, the execution of the Agrarian Law 
of Cassius. But, though the Plebeians failed in obtaining this ob- 
ject, they nevertheless made steady progress in gaining for them- 
selves a more important position in the city. In B.C. 471 the Pub- 
lilian Law was carried, by which the election of the Tribunes and 
Plebeian -^diles Avas transferred from the Comitia of the Centuries 
to those of the Tribes.* From this time the Comitia of the Tribes 
may be regarded as one of the political assemblies of the state, 
ranking with those of the Centuries and the Curies. But the Pa- 
tricians still retained exclusive possession of the administrative and 
judicial powers, and there were no written laws to limit their au- 
thority and to regulate their decisions. Under these circum- 
* See note on p. 31. 



B.C. 451-449. THE DECEMVIRATE. 37 

stances, the Tribune C. Terentilius Arsa proposed, in B.C. 462, that 
a commission of Ten Men (Decemviri) should be appointed to draw- 
up a code of laws, by which a check might be put to the arbitrary 
power of the Patrician magistrates. This proposition, as might 
have been expected, met with the most vehement opposition from 
the Patricians. But the Plebeians were firm, and for five success- 
ive years the same Tribunes were re-elected. It was during this 
struggle that an attempt was made upon the Capitol by Herdonius, 
a Sabine chief, with a band of outlaws and slaves. It was a tur- 
bulent period, and the Patricians had recourse even to assassina- 
tion. At length, after a struggle of eight years, a compromise was 
effected, and it was arranged that Three Commissioners (Trium- 
viri) were to be sent into Greece to collect information respecting 
the laws of Solon at Athens, as well as of the other Greek states. 
After an absence of two years the three commissioners retumed to 
Rome (B.C. 452), and it was now resolved that a Council of Ten, 
or Decemvirs, should be appointed to draw up a code of laws, and, 
at the same time, to carry on the government and administer jus- 
tice. All the other magistrates were obliged to abdicate, and no 
exception was made even in favor of the Tribunes. The Decem- 
virs were thus intrusted with supreme power in the state. They 
entered upon their oflSce at the beginning of b.c. 451. They were 
all Patricians. At their head stood Appius Claudius and T. Ge- 
nucius, who had been already appointed consuls for the year. 
They discharged the duties of their office with diligence, and dis- 
pensed justice with impartiality. Each administered the govern- 
ment day by day in succession, and the fasces were carried only 
before the one who presided for the day. They drew up a Code 
of Ten Tables, in which equal justice was dealt out to both orders. 
The Ten Tables received the sanction of the Comitia of the Cen- 
turies, and thus became law. 

On the expiration of their year of office all parties were so well 
satisfied with the manner in which the Decemvirs had discharged 
their duties that it was resolved to continue the same form of gov- 
ernment for another year, more especially as some of them said 
that their work was not finished. A new Council of Ten was ac- 
cordingly elected, of whom Appius Claudius alone belonged to the 
former body. He had so carefully concealed his pride and ambi- 
tion during the previous year that he had been the most popular 
member of the council, and the Patricians, to prevent his appoint- 
ment for another year, had ordered him to preside at the Comitia 
for the elections, thinking that he would not receive votes for him- 
self. But Appius set such scruples at defiance, and not only re- 
turned himself as elected, but took care that his nine colleagues 



38 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. V. 

should be subservient to his views. He now threw off the mask 
he had hitherto worn, and acted as the tyrant of Rome. Each 
Decemvir was attended by twelve lictors, who caiTied the fasces 
with the axes in them, so that 120 lictors were seen in the city in- 
stead of 12. The Senate was rarely summoned. No one was 
now safe, and many of the leading men quitted Rome. Two new 
Tables were added to the Code, making twelve in all ; but these 
new laws were of the most oppressive kind, and confirmed the 
Patricians in their most odious privileges. 

When the year came to a close the Decemvirs neither resigned 
nor held Comitia for the election of successors, but continued to 
hold their power in defiance of the Senate and of the People. 
Next year (b.c. 449) the Sabines and ^.quians invaded the Roman 
territory, and two armies were dispatched against them, command- 
ed by some of the Decemvirs. Appius remained at Rome to ad- 
minister justice. But the soldiers fought with no spirit under the 
command of men whom they detested, and two acts of outrageous 
tyranny caused them to turn their arms against their hated mas- 
ters. 

In the army fighting against the Sabines was a centurion named 
L. Siciuius Dentatus, the bravest of the brave. He had fought in 
120 battles ; he had slain eight of the enemy in single combat ; 
had received 40 wounds, all in front ; he had accompanied the tri- 
umphs of nine generals ; and had war-crowns and other rewards 
innumerable. As Tribune of the Plebs four years before, he had 
taken an active part in opposing the Patricians, and was now sus- 
pected of plotting against the Decemvirs. His death was accord- 
ingly resolved on, and he was sent with a company of soldiers as 
if to reconnoitre the enemy's position. But in a lonely spot they 
fell upon him and slew him, though not until he had destroyed most 
of the traitors. His comrades, who were told that he had fallen in 
an ambush of the enemy, discovered the foul treachery that had 
been practiced when they saw him surrounded by Roman soldiers 
who had evidently been slain by him. The Decemvirs prevented 
an immediate outbreak only by burying Dentatus with great pomp, 
but the troops were ready to rise in open mutiny upon the first 
provocation. 

In the other army sent against the ^quians there was a well- 
known centurion named Virginius. He had a beautiful daughter, 
betrothed to L. Icilius, an eminent leader of the Plebeian order. 
The maiden had attracted the notice of the Decemvir Appius 
Claudius. He at first tried bribes and allurements, but when 
these failed he had recourse to an outrageous act of tyranny. One 
morning, as Virginia, attended by her nurse, was on the way to her 



B.C. 451-449. THE DECEMVIRATE. 39 

scliool, which was in one of the booths surrounding the forum, M. 
Claudius, a client of Appius, laid hold of the damsel and claimed 
her as his slave. The cry of the nurse for help brought a crowd 
around them, and all parties went before the Decemvir. In his 
presence Marcus repeated the tale he had learnt, asserting that 
Virginia was the child of one of his female slaves, and had been 
imposed upon Virginius by his wife, who was childless. He far- 
ther stated that he would prove this to Virginius as soon as he re- 
turned to Rome, and he demanded that the girl should meantime 
be handed over to his custody. Appius, fearing a riot, said that 
he would let the cause stand over till the next day, but that then, 
whether her father appeared or not, he should know how to main- 
tain the laws. Straightway two friends of the family made all 
haste to the camp, which they reached the same evening. Virgin- 
ius immediately obtained leave of absence, and was already on his 
way to Rome, when the messenger of Appius arrived, instructing 
his colleagues to detain him. Early next morning Virginius and 
his daughter came into the forum with their garments rent. The 
father appealed to the people for aid, and the women in their com- 
pany sobbed aloud. But, intent upon the gratification of his pas- 
sions, Appius cared not for the misery of the father and the girl, 
and hastened to give sentence, by which he consigned the maiden 
to his client. Appius, who had brought with him a large body of 
patricians and their clients, ordered his lictors to disperse the mob. 
The people drew back, leaving Virginius and his daughter alone 
before the judgment-seat. All help was gone. The unhappy fa- 
ther then prayed the Decemvir to be allowed to speak one word to 
the nurse in his daughter's hearing, in order to ascertain whether 
she was really his daughter. The request was granted. Virgin- 
ius drew them both aside, and, snatching up a butcher's-knife from 
one of the stalls, plunged it into his daughter's breast, exclaiming, 
"There is no way but this to keep thee free." In vain did Appius 
call out to stop him. The crowd made way for him, and, holding his 
bloody knife on high, he rushed to the gate of the city and hasten- 
ed to the army. His comrades espoused his cause, expelled their 
commanders, and marched toward Rome. They were soon joined 
by the other army, to whom Numitorius and Icilius had carried 
the tidings. The Plebeians in the city flocked to them, and they all 
resolved to retire once more to the Sacred ]\Iount. 

This second secession extorted from the Patricians the second 
great charter of the Plebeian rights. The Patricians compelled 
the Decemvirs to resign, and sent L. Valerius and M. Horatius, two 
of the most eminent men of their order, to negotiate with the Ple- 
beians. It was finally agreed that the Tribunes should be restored, 



40 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. V. 

that the authority of the Comitia Tributa should be recognized, 
and that the right of appeal to the people against the power of the 
supreme magistrates should be confirmed. The Plebeians now 
returned to the city, and elected, for the first time, ten Tribunes 
instead of five, a number which remained unchanged down to the 
latest times. Virginius, Icilius, and Numitorius were among the 
new Tribunes. 

Two Consuls were elected in place of the Decemvirs, and the 
choice of the Comitia Centuriata naturally fell upon Valerius and 
Horatius. The new Consuls now redeemed their promises to the 
Plebeians by bringing forward the laws which are called after 
them, the Valerian and Horatian Laivs, These celebrated laws en- 
acted : 

1. That every Roman citizen should have the right of appeal 
against the sentence of the supreme magistrate. This was, in fact, 
a solemn confirmation of the old law of Valerius Publicola, passed 
in the first year of the republic. It was enacted again a third time 
in B.C. 300, on the proposal of M. Valerius, the Consul. These re- 
peated enactments gave a still farther sanction to the law. In the 
same way the Great Charter of England was ratified several times. 

2. That the Plebiscita^ or resolutions passed by the Plebeians in 
the Comitia Tributa, should have the force of laws, and should be 
binding alike upon Patricians and Plebeians. 

3. That the persons of the Tribunes, ^diles, and other Plebeian 
magistrates should be sacred, and whoever injured them should 
be sold as a slave. 

Virginius now accused Appius Claudius, who was thrown into 
prison to await his trial. But the proud Patrician, seeing that his 
condemnation was certain, put an end to his own life. Oppius, 
another of the Decemvirs, and the personal friend of Appius, was 
condemned and executed. The other Decemvirs were allowed to 
go into exile, but they were all declared guilty, and their property 
confiscated to the state. 

The Twelve Tables were always regarded as the foundation of 
the Roman law, and long continued to be held in the highest esti- 
mation. But they probably did little more than fix in a written 
form a large body of customary law, though even this was a bene- 
fit to the Plebeians, as they were no longer subject to the arbitraiy 
decisions of the Patrician magistrates. The Patricians still re- 
tained their exclusive privileges ; and the eleventh table even gave 
the sanction of law to the old custom which prohibited all inter- 
marriage (connubiu7n) between the two orders. 




View iu the neighborhood of VeiL 



CHAPTER VI. 

FROM THE DECEMYIRATE TO THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE 

GAULS. B.C. 448-390. 

The efforts of the leaders of the Plebeians were now directed 
to two subjects, the removal of the prohibition of intermarriage be- 
tween the two orders, and the opening of the Consulship to their 
own order. They attained the first object four years after the De- 
cemvirate by the Lex Canuleia, proposed by Canuleius, one of the 
Tribunes (b.c. 445). But they did not carry this law without a 
third secession, in which they occupied the Janiculum. At the 
same time a compromise was effected with respect to the Consul- 
ship. The Patricians agreed that the supreme power in the state 
should be intrusted to new officers bearing the title of Military 
Tribztnes with Consular Power, who might be chosen equally from 
Patricians and Plebeians. Their number varied in different years 
from three to six. In b.c. 444 three Military Tribunes were nom- 
inated for the first time. In the following year (443) two new 
magistrates, called Censoi-s, were appointed. They were always 
to be chosen from the Patricians ; and the reason of the institu- 



42 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. VI. 

tion clearly was to deprive the Military Tribunes of some of the 
most important functions, which had been formerly discharged by 
the Consuls. The Censors originally held office for a period of 
five years, which was called a lustrum ; but their tenure was limit- 
ed to eighteen months, as early as ten years after its institution 
(B.C. 443), by a law of the Dictator Mamercus ^milius, though 
they continued to be appointed only once in five years.* 

Though the Military Tribunes could from their first institution 
be chosen from either order, yet such was the influence of the Pa- 
tricians in the Comitia of the Centuries that it was not till B.C. 
400, or nearly forty years afterward, that any Plebeians were act- 
ually elected. In b.c. 421 the Quaestorship was also thrown open 
to them. The Qucestors were the paymasters of the state ; and as 
the Censors had to fill up vacancies in the Senate from those who 
had held the office of Queestor, the Plebeians thus became eligible 
for the Senate. 

During these struggles between the two orders an event took 
place which is fi'equently referred to by later writers. In the year 
440 B.C. there was a great famine at Rome. Sp. Mcelius, one of 
the richest of the Plebeian knights, expended his fortune in buy- 
ing up corn, which he sold to the poor at a small price, or distrib- 
uted among them gratuitously. The Patricians thought, or pre- 
tended to think, that he was aiming at kingly power ; and in the 
following year (439) the aged Quintius Cincinnatus, who had saved 
the Roman army on Mount Algidus, was appointed Dictator. He 
nominated C. Servilius Ahala his Master of the Horse. During 
the night the Capitol and all the strong posts were garrisoned by 
the Patricians, and in the morning Cincinnatus appeared in the 
forum with a strong force, and summoned Maelius to appear be- 
fore his tribunal. But seeing the fate which awaited him, he re- 
fused to go, whereupon Ahala rushed into the crowd and struck 
him dead upon the spot. His property was confiscated, and his 
house was leveled to the ground. The deed of Ahala is frequent- 
ly mentioned by Cicero and other writers in terms of the highest 
admiration, but it was regarded by the Plebeians at the time as an 
act of murder. Ahala was brought to trial, and only escaped con- 
demnation by a voluntary exile. 

In their foreign wars the Romans continued to be successful, 
and, aided by their allies the Latins and Hernicans, they made 

* The Censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the 
exception of the Dictatordhip. The duties of the Censors were numerous and 
important. They not only took the census — or the register of the citizens and 
their property — hut they also chose the members of the Senate, exercised a su- 
perintendence over the whole public and private life of the citizens, and, in addi- 
tion, had the administration of the finances of the state. 



B.C. 396. CAPTURE OF VEIL 43 

steady progress in driving back their old enemies the Volscians 
and ^quians. About this time they planted several colonies in 
the districts which they conquered. These Roman colonies dif- 
fered widely fi'om those of ancient Greece and of modern Europe. 
They were of the nature of garrisons established in conquered 
towns, and served both to strengthen and extend the power of 
Rome. The colonists received a portion of the conquered territo- 
ry, and lived as a ruling class among the old inhabitants, who re- 
tained the use of the land. 

The Romans now renewed their wars with the Etruscans; and 
tlie capture of the important city of Veil was the first decisive ad- 
vantage gained by the Republic. The hero of this period was 
Camillus, who stands out prominently as the greatest general of 
the infant Republic, who saved Rome from the Gauls, and whom 
later ages honored as a second Romulus. 

Veii, however, was only taken after a long and severe struggle. 
It was closely allied with Fidence, a town of Latium, not more than 
five or six miles from Rome. The two cities frequently united 
their arms against Rome, and in one of these wars Lars Tolum- 
nius, the king of Veii, was slain in single combat by A. Cornelius 
Cossus, one of the Military Tribunes, and his arms dedicated to 
eTupiter, the second of the three instances in which the Spolia Opi- 
via were won (b.c. 437). A few years afterward Fidense was taken 
and destroyed (b.c. 42G), and at the same time a truce Avas grant- 
ed to the Veientines for twenty years. At the expiration of this 
truce the war was renewed, and the Romans resolved to subdue 
Veii as they had done Fidense. The siege of Veii, like that of 
Troy, lasted ten years, and the means of its capture was almost as 
marvelous as the wooden horse by which Troy Avas taken. The 
waters of the Alban Lake rose to such a height as to deluge the 
neighboring country. An oracle declared that Veii could not be 
taken until the waters of the lake found a passage to the sea. 
This reached the ears of the Romans, who thereupon constructed a 
tunnel to carry off its superfluous waters.* The formation of this 
tunnel is said to have suggested to the Romans the means of tak- 
ing Veii. M. Furius Camillus, who was appointed Dictator, com- 
menced digging a mine beneath the city, which was to have its 
outlet in the citadel, in the temple of Juno, the guardian deity of 
Veii. When the mine was finished, the attention of the inhabit- 
ants was diverted by feigned assaults against the walls. Camillus 

* This remarkable work, which, after the lap?e of more than two thousand 
years, still continues to serve the purpose for which it was originally designed, 
is cut through the soft volcanic tufa of which the Alban Hill is composed. Tlic 
length of the tunnel is about 6000 feet, and it is 4 feet 6 inches wide. 



44 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. VI. 

led the way into the mine at the head of a picked body of troops. 
As he stood beneath the temple of Juno, he heard the soothsayer 
declare to the king of the Veien tines that whoever should complete 
the sacrifice he was offering would be the conqueror. Thereupon 
the Romans burst forth and seized the flesh of the victim, which 
Camillus offered up. The soldiers who guarded the walls were 
thus taken in the rear, the gates were thrown open, and the city 
soon filled with Romans. The booty was immense, and the few 
citizens who escaped the sword were sold as slaves. The image 
of Juno was carried to Rome, and installed with great pomp on 
Mount Aventine, where a temple was erected to her. Camillus 
entered Rome in a chariot drawn by four white horses. Rome 
had never yet seen so magnificent a triumph (b.c. 39G). 

One circumstance, which occurred during the siege of Veil, de- 
serves notice. As the Roman soldiers were obliged to pass the 
whole year under arms, in order to invest the city during the win- 
ter as well as the summer, they now, for the first time, received 
pay. 

Veii was a more beautiful city than Rome, and, as it was now 
without inhabitants, many of the Roman people wished to remove 
thither. At the persuasion of Camillus the project was abandon- 
ed; but the territory of Veii was divided among the Plebeians. 

Falerii was almost the only one of the Etruscan cities which had 
assisted Veii, and she was now exposed single-handed to the venge- 
ance of the Romans. It is related that, when Camillus appeared 
before Falerii, a schoolmaster of the town treacherously conduct- 
ed the sons of the noblest families into the Roman camp, but that 
Camillus, scorning the baseness of the man, ordered his arms to 
be tied behind him, and the boys to flog him back into the town ; 
whereupon the inhabitants, overcome by such generosity, gave up 
their arms, and surrendered to the Romans (b.c. 394). 

Camillus was one of the proudest of the Patricians ; and he now 
incurred the hatred of the Plebeians by calling upon every man to 
refund a tenth of the booty taken at Veiij because he had made a 
vow to consecrate to Apollo a tithe of the spoil. He was accused 
of having appropriated the great bronze gates at Veii, and was 
impeached by one of the Tribunes. Seeing that his condemnation 
was certain, he went into exile, praying as he left the walls that 
the Republic might soon have cause to regret him (b.c. 491). His 
prayer was heard, for the Gauls had already crossed the Apen- 
nines, and next year Rome was in ashes. 




Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored. 



CHAPTER VII. 

PROM THE CAPTTIRE OF ROME aY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL 
UNION OF THE TWO OEDEKS. B.C. 390-367. 

The Gauls ov Celts were in ancient times spread over the great- 
er part ofWestern Europe. They inhabited Gaul and the British 
isles, and had in the time of the Tarquins crossed the Alps and 
taken possession of Northern Italy. But they now spread farther 
south, crossed the Apennines, and laid waste Avith fire and sword 
the provinces of Central Italy. Rome fell before them, and was 
reduced to ashes ; but the details of its capture are clearly legend- 
ary. The common story runs as follows : 

The Senones, a tribe of the Gauls, led by their chief Brennus, 
laid siege to Clusium, the powerful Etruscan city over which Lars 
Porsena once reigned. Such reputation had Rome gained through 
her conquests in Etruria, that Clusium applied to her for aid (b.c. 
391). The Senate sent three embassadors, sons of the chief pon- 
tiff, Fabius Ambustus, to warn the barbarians not to touch an ally 
of Rome. But the Gauls treated their message with scorn ; and 
the embassadors, forgetting their sacred character, fought in the 
Clusine ranks. One of the Pabii slew with his own hands a Gallic 
chieftain, and was recognized while stripping off his armor. Bren- 



46 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. VII. 

nus therefore sent to Rome to demand satisfaction. The Roman 
people not only refused to give it, but elected the three Fabii as 
Military Tribunes for the following year. On hearing of this in- 
sult, the Gauls broke up the siege of Clusium, and hastened south- 
ward toward Rome. All the inhabitants fled before them into the 
towns. They pursued their course without injuring any one, cry- 
ing to the guards upon the walls of the towns they passed, "Our 
way lies for Rome." On the news of their approach the Roman 
army hurried oiit of the city, and on the 16th of July (b.c. 390), 
a day ever after regarded as disastrous, they met the Gauls on the 
Allia, a small river which flows into the Tiber, on its left bank, 
about eleven miles from Rome. Brennus attacked the Romans on 
the flank, and threw them into confusion. A general panic seized 
them : they turned and fled. Some escaped across the Tiber to 
Veii, and a few reached Rome, but the greater number were slain 
by the Gauls. 

The loss at the Allia had been so great that enough men were 
not left to guard the walls of the city. It was therefore resolved 
that those in the vigor of their age should withdraw to the Capitol, 
taking with them all the provisions in the city ; that the priests 
and Vestal Virgins should convey the objects of religious rever- 
ence to Csere ; and that the rest of the population should disperse 
among the neighboring towns. But the aged senators, who had 
been Consuls or Censors, seeing that their lives were no longer of 
any service to the state, sat down in the forum on their curule 
thrones awaiting death. When the Gauls entered the city they 
found it desolate and deathlike. They marched on, without seeing 
a human being till they came to the forum. Here they beheld the 
aged senators sitting immovable, like beings of another world. 
For some time they gazed in awe at this strange sight, till at length 
one of the Gauls ventured to go up to M. Papirius and stroke his 
white beard. The old man struck him on the head with his ivory 
sceptre ; whereupon the barbarian slew him, and all the rest were 
massacred. The Gauls now began plundering the city ; fires 
broke out in several quarters ; and with the exception of a few 
houses on the Palatine, which the chiefs kept for their own resi- 
dence, the whole city was burnt to the ground. 

The Capitol was the next object of attack. There was only one 
steep way leading up to it, and all the assaults of the besiegers 
were easily repelled. They thereupon turned the siege into a 
blockade, and for seven months were encamped amid the ruins of 
Rome. But their numbers w^ere soon thinned by disease, for they 
had entered Rome in the most unhealthy time of the year, when 
fevers have always prevailed. The failure of provisions obliged 



B.C. 390. CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS. 47 

them to ravage the neighboring countries, the people of which be- 
gan to combine for defense against the marauders. Meantime the 
scattered Romans took courage. They collected at Veil, and here 
resolved to recall Camillus from banisliment, and appoint him Dic- 
tator. In order to obtain the consent of the Senate, a daring 
youth, named Pontius Cominius, offered to swim across the Tiber 
and climb the Capitol. He reached the top unperceived by the 
enemy, obtained the approval of the Senate to the appointment of 
Camillus, and returned safely to A^eii. But next day some Gauls 
observed the traces of his steps, and in the dead of night they 
climbed up the same way. The foremost of them had already 
reached the top, unnoticed by the sentinels and the dogs, when the 
cries of some geese roused M. Manlius from sleep. These geese 
were sacred to Juno, and had been spared notwithstanding the 
gnawings of hunger ; and the Romans were now rewarded for their 
piety. M. Manlius thrust down the Gaul who had clambered up, 
and gave the alarm. The Capitol was thus saved ; and down to 
latest times M. Manlius was honored as one of the greatest heroes 
of the early Republic. 

Still no help came, and the Gauls remained before the Capitol. 
The Romans suffered from famine, and at length agreed to pay 
the barbarians 1000 pounds of gold, on condition of their quitting 
the city and its territory. Brennus brought false weights, and, 
when the Romans exclaimed against this injustice, the Gallic chief 
threw his sword also into the scale, crying, "Woe to the vanquish- 
ed !" But at this very moment Camillus marched into the forum, 
ordered the gold to be taken away, and drove the Gauls out of the 
city. Another battle was fought on the road to Gabii, in which 
the Gauls were completely destroyed, and their leader Brennus 
taken prisoner. This tale, however, is an invention of Roman 
vanity. We learn from other sources that the Gauls retreated be- 
cause their settlements in Northern Italy were attacked by the Ve- 
netians; and there can be little doubt that their departure was 
hastened by a present of Roman gold. The Gauls frequently re- 
peated their inroads, and for many years to come were the constant 
dread of the Romans. 

When the Romans returned to the heap of ruins which was once 
their city their hearts sank within them. The people shrank from 
the expense and toil of rebuilding their houses, and loudly demand- 
ed that they should all remove to Veii, where the pi'ivate dwellings 
and public buildings were still standing. But Camillus and the 
Patricians strongly urged them not to abandon the homes of their 
fathers, and they were at length persuaded to remain. The state 
granted bricks, and stones were fetched from Veii. Within a year 



48 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. VII. 

the city rose from its ashes ; but the streets were narrow and crook- 
ed ; the houses were frequently built over the sewers ; and the 
city continued to show, down to the great fire of Nero, evident 
traces of the haste and irregularity with Avhich it had been rebuilt. 

Rome was now deprived of almost all her subjects, and her ter- 
ritory was reduced to nearly its original limits. The Latins and 
Hernicans dissolved the League with the Romans, and wars broke 
out on every side. In these difficulties and dangers Camillas was 
the soul of the Republic. Again and again he led the Roman le- 
gions against their enemies, and always with success. The rapidi- 
ty with which the Romans recovered their power after so terrible 
a disaster would seem unaccountable but for the fact that the oth- 
er nations had also suffered greatly from the inroads of the Gauls, 
who still continued to ravage Central Italy. Two of their inva- 
sions of the Roman territory are commemorated by celebrated le- 
gends, Avhich may be related here, though they belong to a later 
period. 

In B.C. 361 the Gauls and Romans were encamped on either 
bank of the Arno. A gigantic Gaul stepped forth from the ranks 
and insultingly challenged a Roman knight. T. Manlius, a Ro- 
man youth, obtained permission from his general to accept the 
challenge, slew the giant, and took from the dead body the golden 
chain (torques) which the barbarian wore around his neck. His 
comrades gave him the surname of Torquatus, which he handed 
down to his descendants. 

In B.C. 349 another distinguished Roman family earned its sur- 
name from a single combat with a Gaul. Here again a Gallic 
warrior of gigantic size challenged any one of the Romans to sin- 
gle combat. His challenge was accepted by M. Valerius, upon 
whose helmet a raven perched ; and as they fought, the bird flew 
into the face of the Gaul, striking at him with its beak and flapping 
his wings. Thus Valerius slew the Gaul, and was called in conse- 
quence " Corvus," or the "Raven." 

It is now necessary to revert to the internal history of Rome. 
Great suftering and discontent prevailed. Returning to ruined 
homes and ravaged lands, the poor citizens had been obliged to 
borrow money to rebuild their houses and cultivate their farms. 
The law of debtor and creditor at Rome, as we have already seen, 
was very severe, and many unfortunate debtors were carried away 
to bondage. Under these circumstances, M. Manlius, the preserver 
of the Capitol, came forward as the patron of the poor. This dis- 
tinguished man had been bitterly disappointed in his claims to 
honor and gratitude. While Camillas, his personal enemy, who 
had shared in none of the dangers of the siege, was repeatedly 



B.C. 376. THE UNION OF THE TWO ORDERS. 49 

raised to the highest honors of the state, he, who had saved the 
Capitol, was left to languish in a private station. Neglected bv 
his own order, Manlius turned to the Plebeians. One day ll 
recognized m the forum a soldier who had served with him in the 

paid his debt upon the spot, and swore that, as long as he had a 
single pound, he would not allow any Roman to be imprisoned for 

Tl . .'. ""vt ^ ^''^' ??' "^ ^'' P'-"P^^^^' ^"d applied the pro- 
ceeds to the liberation of his fellow-citizens from bondage. Sup- 
ported now by the Plebeians, he came forward as the fccuser of 
his own order, and charged them with appropriating to their own 

^,.pl%n n ^.^'""^"^ '"] .^^t»^'" accused him, as they had ac- 
cused Sp. Cassius, of aspiring to the tyranny. When he was 
brought to trial before the Comitia of the Centuries in the Campu 
Martius, he proudly showed the spoils of thirty warriors whorhe 
had slam, the forty military distinctions which he had won in bat 
tie, and the innumerable scars upon his breast, and then turning 
toward the Capitol he prayed the immortal god to remember thf 
man who had saved their temples from destruction. AfTer such 
an appeal, his condemnation was impossible, and his enemies 
herefore contrived to break up the assembly. Shortly afterward 
he was arraigned on the same charges before the Comitia of the 
Curies in the Peteline Grove. Here he was at once condemned 
and was hurled from the Tarpeian Rock. His house, which was 
on the Capitol, was razed to the ground (b.c. 384) 

The death of Manlius, however, was only a temporary check to 
the Plebeian cause. A few years afterward the contest came to a 
crisis. In B.C. 376 C. Licinius Stolo and his kinsman L. Sextius, 
being Tribunes of the Plebs, determined to give the Plebeians an 
equal share in the political power, to deprive the Patricians of the 
exclusive iise of the public land, and to remove the present distress 
of the Plebeians. For this purpose they brought forward three 
laws, which are celebrated in history under the name of The Li 
CDfiAN Rogations.* These were : 

I. That in future Consuls, and not Military Tribunes, should be ap- 

pointed, and that one of the two Consuls 7nust be a Plebeian. 

II. That no citizen should possess more than 500 jugeraf of the 

public land, nor should feed upon the public pastures more than 
100 head of large and 500 of small cattle, under penalty of a 
heavy fine. "^ 

* A Rogatio differed from a Lex, as a Bill from an A ct of Parliament A Pa 

when lasted b^tS*'' *° *'.' T?™"'^ ^^*^^ people!?nd onV'bTcame a Lex 
wnen enacted by them. t A Jugerum was rather more than half an acre. 



50 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. VII. 

III. That the interest already paid for borrowed money should be 
deducted from the principal, and that the remainder should be 
repaid in three yearly instalments. 

These great reforms naturally excited the most violent opposi- 
tion, and the Patricians induced some of the Plebeians to put their 
veto upon the measures of their colleagues. But Licinius and 
Sextius were not to be baffled in this way, and they exercised their 
veto by preventing the Comitia of the Centuries from electing any 
magistrates for the next year. Hence no Consuls, Military Tri- 
bunes, Censors, or Qui»stors could be appointed ; and the Tribunes 
of the Plebs and the ^diles, who were elected by the Comitia of 
the Tribes, were the only magistrates in the state. For five years 
did this state of things continue. C. Licinius and L. Sextius were 
re-elected annually, and prevented the Comitia of the Centuries 
from appointing any magistrates. At the end of this time they al- 
lowed Military Tribunes to be chosen in consequence of a war with 
the Latins ; but so far were they from yielding any of their de- 
mands, that to their former Rogations they now added another: 
That the care of the Sibylline books, instead of being intrusted to 
two men (duumviri), both Patricians, should be given to ten men 
(decemviri), half of whom should be Plebeians. 

Five years more did the struggle last ; but the firmness of the 
Tribunes at length prevailed. In B.C. 367 the Licinian Rogations 
were passed, and L. Sextius was elected the first Plebeian Consul 
for the next year. But the Patricians made one last effort to evade 
the law. By the Roman constitution, the Consuls, after being elect- 
ed by the Comitia Centuriata, received the Imperium, or. sovereign 
power, from the Comitia Curiata. The Patricians thus had it in 
their power to nullify the election of the Centuries by refusing the 
Imperium. This they did when L. Sextius was elected Constil ; 
and they made Camillus, the great champion of their order, Dicta- 
tor, to support them in their new struggle. But the old hero saw 
that it was too late, and detei'rained to bring about a reconciliation 
between the two orders. A compromise was effected. The Im- 
perium was conferred upon L. Sextius ; but the judicial duties were 
taken away from the Consuls, and given to a new magistrate called 
Prcetor. Camillus vowed to the goddess Concord a tempk for his 
success. 

The long struggle between the Patricians and Plebeians was thus 
brought to a virtual close. The Patricians still clung obstinately 
to the exclusive privileges which they still possessed ; but when the 
Plebeians had once obtained a share jn the Consulship, it was evi- 
dent that their participation in the otlier offices of the state could 
not be much longer delayed. We may therefore anticipate the 



B.C. 339. PUBLILIAN LAWS. 51 

course of events by narrating in this place that the first Plebeian 
Dictator was C. Marcius Rutiliis in u.c. 356 ; that the same man 
was the first Plebeian Censor five yeai's afterward (b.c. 351) ; that 
the Pratorship was thrown open to the Plebeians in b.c. 336 ; and 
that the Lex Ogulnia in b.c. 300, which increased the number of 
the Pontiff's from four to eight, and that of the Augurs from four 
to nine, also enacted that four of the Pontiff's and five of the Augurs 
should be taken from the Plebeians. 

About thirty years after the Licinian Rogations, another import- 
ant reform, which abridged still farther the privileges of the Patri- 
cians, was eff'ected by the Publilian Laws, proposed by the Dic- 
tator Q. Publilius Philo in b.c. 339. These were : 

I. That the Resolutions of the Plebs should be binding on all the 
Quirites,* thus giving to the Plebiscita passed at the Comitia 
of the Tribes the same force as the Laws passed at the Comitia 
of the Centuries. 

IL That all laws passed at the Comitia of the Centuries should re- 
ceive previously the sanction of the Curies ; so that the Curies 
wei'e now deprived of all power over the Centuries. 
IIL That one of the Censors must be a Plebeian. 

The first of these laws seems to be little more than a re-enact- 
ment of one of the Valerian and Horatian laws, passed after the 
expulsion of the Decemvirs ;f but it is probable that the latter had 
never been really carried into effect. Even the Publilian Law upon 
this subject seems to have been evaded ; and it was accordingly 
enacted again by the Dictator Q. Hortensius in b.c. 286. In this 
year the last Secession of the Plebeians took place, and the Lex 
HoRTENSiA is always mentioned as the law which gave to Plebis- 
cita passed at the Comitia of the Tribes the full power of laws bind- 
ing- upon the whole nation. From this time we hear of no more 
civil dissensions till the times of the Gracchi, a hundred and fifty 
years afterward, and the Lex Hortensia may therefore be regarded 
as the termination of the long struggle between the two orders. 
* Ut xileliscita omnes Quirites tenerent. t See p. 40. 




Ruins at Capua. 



CHAPTEE VIII. 

FROM THE LICINIAN EOGATIONS TO THE END OF THE SAMNITE 

WARS. B.C. 367-290. 
United at home, the Romans were now prepared to can-y on 
their foreign wars with more vigor ; and their conquests of the 
Samnites and Latins made them the virtual masters of Italy. But 
the years which immediately followed the Licinian laws were times 
of great suffering. A pestflence raged in Rome, which carried off 
many of the most distinguished men, and among others the aged 
Camillus (b.c. 362). The Tiber overflowed its banks, the city was 
shaken by earthquakes, and a yawning chasm opened in the forum. 
The soothsayers declared that the gulf could never be filled up ex- 



B.C. 343-290. THE SAMNITES. 53 

cept by throwing into it that which Rome held most valuable. The 
tale runs that, when every one was doubting what the gods could 
mean, a noble youth named M. Curtius came forward, and, declar- 
ing that Rome possessed nothing so valuable as her brave citizens, 
mounted his steed and leaped into the abyss in full armor, where- 
upon the earth closed over him. This event is assigned to the 
year 3G2 B.C. 

During the next few years the Gauls renewed their inroads, of 
which we have already spoken, and in the course of which Manlius 
Torquatus and Valerius Corvus gained such glory. The Romans 
steadily extended their dominion over the southern part of Etruria 
and the country of the Volscians, and the alliance with the Latins 
was renewed. Fifty years had elapsed since the capture of the city 
by the Gauls, and Rome Avas now strong enough to enter into a con- 
test with the most formidable enemy which her arms had yet en- 
countered. The Samnites were at the height of their power, and 
the contest between them and the Romans was virtually for the su- 
premacy of Italy. The Samnites, as we have already seen, were a 
people of Sabine origin, and had emigrated to the countiy which 
they inhabited at a comparatively late period. They consisted of 
four different tribes or cantons, the Pentri, Hirpini, Caraceni, and 
Caudini, of whom the two former were the most important. They 
inhabited that part of the Apennines which lies between Campania 
and Lucania, but they w^ere not contented Avith their mountain- 
homes, and overran the rich plains which lay at their feet. They 
became the masters of Campania and Lucania, and spread them- 
selves almost to the southern extremity of Italy. But the Sam- 
nites of Campania and Lucania had in course of time broken off 
all connection with the parent nation, and sometimes were engaged 
in hostilities with the latter. It was a contest of this kind that led 
to the war between the Romans and the Samnites of the Apennines. 
On the borders of Campania and Samnium dwelt a people, called 
tlie Sidicini, who had hitherto preserved their independence. Be- 
ing attacked by the Samnites, this people implored the assistance 
of the Campanians, which Avas readily granted. Thereupon the 
Samnites turned their arms against the Campanians, and, after 
occupying Mount Tifata, Avhich OA'erlooks the city of Capua, they 
descended into the plain, and defeated the Campanians in a pitch- 
ed battle at the very gates of Capua. The Campanians, being shut 
up within the city, noAv applied for assistance to Rome, and offered 
to place Capua in their hands. The Romans had only a few years 
previously concluded an alliance with the Samnites ; but the bait 
of the richest city and the most fertile soil in Italy was irresistible, 
and they resoh'ed to comply with the request. Thus began the 



54 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. VIII. 

Samnite Wars, which, with a few intervals of peace, lasted 53 
years. 

First Samnite War, b.c. 343-341. — The Romans commenced 
the war by sending two consular armies against the Samnites ; and 
the first battle between the rival nations was fought at the foot of 
Mount Gaurus, which lies about three miles from Cumae. The 
Samnites were defeated with great loss ; and it has been justly re- 
marked that this battle may be regarded as one of the most mem- 
orable in history, since it Avas a kind of omen of the ultimate issue 
of the great contest which had now begun between the Samnites 
and Romans for the sovereignty of Italy. The Romans gained 
two other decisive victories, and both consuls entered the city in 
triumph. But two causes prevented the Romans from prosecuting 
their success. In the first place, the Roman army, which had been 
wintering in Capua, rose in open mutiny ; and the poorer Ple- 
beians in the city, who were oppressed by debt, left Rome and join- 
ed the mutineers. In the second place, the increasing disaffection 
of the Latins warned the Romans to husband their resources for 
another and more terrible struggle. The Romans, therefore, 
abandoning the Sidicini and Campanians, concluded a treaty of 
peace and alliance with the Samnites in b.c. 341, so that in the 
great Latin war, which broke out in the following year, the Sam- 
nites fought on the side of the Romans. 

The Latin War, b.c. 340-338. — The Latins had, as already 
stated, renewed their league with Rome in b.c. 356, and conse- 
quently their troops had fought along with the Romans in the war 
against the Samnites. But the increasing power of Rome excited 
their alarm ; and it became evident to them that, though nominal- 
ly on a footing of equality, they were, in reality, becoming subject to 
Rome. This feeling was confirmed by the treaty of alliance which 
the Romans had formed with the Samnites. The Latins, there- 
fore, determined to bring matters to a crisis, and sent two Pr^tors, 
who were their chief magistrates, to propose to the Romans that 
the two nations should henceforth form one state ; that half of the 
state should consist of Latins, and that one of the two Consuls 
should be chosen from Latium. These requests excited the great- 
est indignation at Rome, and were rejected with the utmost scorn. 
The Senate met in the Temple of Jupiter, in the Capitol, to receive 
the Latin deputation, and, after hearing their proposals, the Con- 
sul, T. Manlius Torquatus, the same who had slain the Gaul in 
single combat, declared that, if the Republic should coAvardly yield 
to these demands, he would come into the senate-house sword in 
hand and cut down the first Latin he saAV there. The tale goes 
on to say that in the discussion which followed, when both parties 



B.C. 340. THE LATIN WAR. 55 

were excited by anger, the Latin Prsetor defied the Roman Jupiter ; 
that thereupon an awful peal of thunder shook the building ; and 
that, as the impious man hurried down the steps from the temple, 
he fell from top to bottom, and lay there a corpse. 

War was now declared, and the most vigorous efforts were made 
on both sides. The contest was to decide whether Rome should 
become a Latin town, or the Latins be subject to Rome. The Ro- 
mans had elected to the consulship two of their most distinguished 
men. The Patrician Consul was, as already mentioned, T. Man- 
lius Torquatus ; his Plebeian colleague was P. Decius Mus, who 
had gained great renown in the recent war against the Samnites. 
The two Consuls marched through Samnium into Campania, and 
threatened Capua, thus leaving Rome exposed to the attacks of the 
Latins. But the Consuls foresaw that the Latins would not aban- 
don Capua, their great acquisition ; and the event proved their 
wisdom. The contest was thus withdrawn from the territory of 
Rome and transferred to Campania, where the Romans could re- 
ceive assistance from the neighboring country of their Samnite al- 
lies. It was at the foot of Mount Vesuvius that the two armies 
met, and here the battle was fought which decided the contest. 
It was like a civil war. The soldiers of the two armies spoke the 
same language, had fought by each others' sides, and were well 
known to one another. Under these circumstances, the Consuls 
published a proclamation that no Roman should engage in single 
combat with a Latin on pain of death. But the son of Torquatus, 
provoked by the insults of a Tusculan officer, accepted his chal- 
lenge, slew his adversary, and carried the bloody spoils in triumph 
to his father. The Consul had within him the heart of Brutus ; 
he would not pardon this breach of discipline, and ordered the un- 
happy youth to be beheaded by the lictor in the presence of the as- 
sembled aimy. 

In the night before the battle a vision appeared to each Consul, 
announcing that the general of one side and the army of the other 
were doomed to destruction. Both agreed that the one whose 
wing first began to waver shoiild devote himself and the army of 
the enemy to the gods of the lower world. Decius commanded 
the left wing ; and when it began to give way, he resolved to fulfill 
liis vow. Calling the Pontifex Maximus, he repeated after him 
the form of words by Avhich he devoted himself and the army of 
the enemy to the gods of the dead and the mother earth ; then 
leaping upon his horse, he rushed into the thickest of the fight, 
and Avas slain. The Romans gained a signal victory. Scarcely a 
fourth part of the Latins escaped (b.c. 3-10). 

This victory made the Romans masters of Campania, and the 



56 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. VIII. 

Latins did not dare to meet them again in the field. The war 
continued two years longer, each city confining itself to the defense 
of its own walls, and hoping to receive help from others in case 
of an attack. But upon the capture of Pedum in b.c. 338 all the 
Latins laid down their arms, and garrisons were placed in their 
towns. The Romans were now absolute masters of Latium, and 
their great object was to prevent the Latin cities from forming any 
union again. For this purpose not only were all general assem- 
blies forbidden, but, in order to keep the cities completely isolated, 
the citizens of one town could not marry or make a legal contract 
of bargain or sale with another.* Tibur and Prseneste, the two 
most powerful cities of the League, which had taken the most act- 
ive part in the war, were deprived of a portion of their land, but 
were allowed to retain a nominal independence, preserving their 
own laws, and renewing from time to time their treaties with Rome. 
The inhabitants of several other towns, such as Tusculum and La- 
nuvium, received the Roman franchise ; their territory was incor- 
porated in that of the Republic ; and two new tribes were created 
to carry these arrangements into effect. Many of the most distin- 
guished Romans sprung from these Latin towns. 

Twelve years elapsed between the subjugation of Latium and the 
commencement of the Second Samnite War. During this time 
the Roman arms continued to make steady progress. One of their 
most important conquests was that of the Volscian town of Priver- 
num in b.c. 329, from which time the Volscian s, so long the for- 
midable enemies of Rome, disappear as an independent nation. 
The extension of the Roman power naturally awakened the jeal- 
ousy of the Samnites ; and the assistance rendered by them to the 
Greek cities of Palceopolis and Neapolis Avas the immediate occa- 
sion of the Second Samnite War. These two cities were colonies 
of the neighboring Cuma6, and were situated only five miles from 
each other. The position of Palseopolis, or the "Old City," is un- 
certain; but Neapolis, or the "New City," stands on the site of a 
part of the modern Naples. The Romans declared war against the 
two cities in b.c. 327, and sent the Consul Q. Publilius Philo to re- 
duce them to subjection. The Greek colonists had previously form- 
ed an alliance with the Samnites, and now received powerful Sam- 
nite garrisons. Publilius encamped between the cities ; and as he 
did not succeed in taking them before his year of office expired, he 
was continued in the command with the title of JProconstil, the first 
time that this office was created. At the beginning of the follow- 
ing year Palaeopolis was taken ; and Neapolis only escaped the 

* According f,o the Roman expression, the Jus Conmibii and Jus Commercii 
VQve forbidden. 



B.C. 326-304. SECOND SAMNITE WAR. 57 

same fate by concluding an alliance with the Romans. Meanwhile 
the Romans had declared Avai* against the Samnites. 

Second ok Great Samnite War, e.g. 326-304. — The Second 
Samnite War lasted 22 years, and was by far the most important 
of the three wars which this people waged with Rome. During 
the first five years (b.c. 326-322) the Roman arms were generally 
successful. The Samnites became so disheartened that they sued 
for peace, but obtained only a truce for a year. It was during this 
period that the well-known quarrel took place between L. Papirius 
Cursor and Q, Fabius Maximus, the two most celebrated Roman 
generals of the time, who constantly led the armies of the Republic 
to victory. In b.c. 325 L. Papirius was Dictator, and Q. Fabius 
his Master of the Horse. Recalled to Rome by some defect in the 
auspices, the Dictator left the army in charge of Fabius, but with 
strict orders not to venture upon an engagement. Compelled or 
•provoked by the growing boldness of the enemy, Fabius attacked 
and defeated them with great loss. But this victory was no exten- 
uation for his offense in the eyes of the Dictator. Papirius has- 
tened back to the camp, burning with indignation that his com- 
mands had been disobeyed, and ordered his lictors to seize Fabius 
and put him to death. The soldiers, whom Fabius had led to vic- 
tory, rose in his defense ; and in the night he escaped to Rome, to 
implore the protection of the Senate. He was stating the case to 
the Fathers, when Papirius entered the senate-house, followed by 
his lictors, and demanded that the offender should be given up for 
execution. But the Senate, the people, and the aged father of Max- 
imus interceded so strongly for his life, that the Dictator was obliged 
to give way and to grant an ungracious pardon. 

The year's truce had not expired when the Samnites again took 
up arms, and for the next seven years (b.c. 321-315) the balance 
of success inclined to their side. This appears to have been mainly 
owing to the military abilities of their general C. Pontius, who de- 
serves to be ranked among the chief men of antiquity. In the first 
year of his command he inflicted upon the Romans one of the sever- 
est blows they ever sustained in the whole course of their history. 

In B.C. 321 the two Consuls, T. Veturius and Sp. Postumius, 
marched into Samnium by the road from Capua to Beneventum. 
Near the town of Caudium they entered the celebrated pass called 
the Caudine Forks (Furculie Caudinte). It consisted of two nar- 
row defiles or gorges, between which was a tolerably spacious plain, 
but shut in on each side by mountains. The Romans, thinking the 
Samnites to be far distant, had marched through the first pass and 
the plain; but when they came to the second they found it blocked 
up by works and trunks of trees, so as to be quite impassable. 



58 HISTOEY OF ROME. Chap. VIII. 

Retracing their steps to the pass by which they had entered, they 
found that the enemy had meantime taken possession of this also. 
They were thus blocked up at either end, and, after making vain 
attempts to force their way through, were obliged to surrender at 
discretion. Thus both Consuls and four legions fell into the hands 
of the Samnites. C. Pontius made a merciful use of his victory. 
He agreed to dismiss them in safety upon their promising to restore 
the ancient alliance on equal terms between the two nations, and 
to give up all the places which they had conquered during the war. 
The Consuls and the other superior officers swore to these terms in 
the name of the Republic, and six hundred Roman knights were 
given as hostages. The whole Roman army was now allowed to 
depart, and each Roman soldier marched out singly under the 
yoke. 

When the news of this disaster reached Rome the Senate refused 
to ratify the peace, and resolved that the two Consuls and all the 
officers who had sworn to the peace should be delivered up to the 
Samnites as persons who had deceived them. They were conduct- 
ed to Caudium by a Tetialis ; and when they appeared before the 
tribunal of C. Pontius, Postumius, with superstitious folly, struck 
the Fetialis with his foot, saying that he was now a Samnite citizen, 
and that war might be renewed with justice by the Romans, since 
a Samnite had insulted the sacred envoy of the Roman people. 
But Pontius refused to accept the persons Avho Avere thus offered, 
and told them, if they wished to nullify the treaty, to send back the 
army to the Caudine Forks. Thus Postumius and his companions 
returned to Rome, and the 600 knights were alone left in the hands 
of the Samnites. 

The disaster of Caudium shook the fate of many of the Roman 
allies, and the fortune of war was for some years in favor of the 
Samnites. But in B.C. 314: the tide of success again turned, and 
the decisive victory of the Consuls in that year opened the way into 
the heart of Samnium. From this time the Romans were uniform- 
ly successful ; and it seemed probable that the war was drawing to 
a close, when the Etruscans created a powerful diversion by de- 
claring war against Rome in B.C. 311. But the energy and abili- 
ty of Q. Fabius Maximus averted this new danger. He boldly car- 
ried the war into the very heart of Etruria, and gained a decisive 
victory OA^er the forces of the League. The Samnites also were re- 
peatedly defeated ; and after the capture of Bovianum, the chief 
city of the Pentri, they were compelled to sue for peace. It was 
granted them in B.C. 304, on condition of their acknowledging the 
supremacy of Rome. 
' At the conclusion of the Second Samnite War the JEquians and 



B.C. 298-290. THIRD SAMNITE WAR. 59 

Hernicans were reduced to subjection after a brief struggle. A 
part of the ^quian territory was incorporated in that of Rome by 
the addition of two new tribes, and two colonies were planted in the 
other portion. The Marsi, Marrucini, Peligni, and other nations 
of Central Italy, entered into a league with the Romans on equal 
terms. Thus, in B.C. 300, the power of Rome seemed firmly estab- 
lished in Central Italy. But this very poAver awakened the jeal- 
ousy of the surrounding nations, and the Samnites exerted them- 
selves to form a new and formidable coalition. The Etruscans and 
Umbrians agreed to make war against Rome, and called in the as- 
sistance of the Senonian Gauls. 

Third Samnite War, b.c. 298-290. — As soon as the Etruscans 
and Umbrians were engaged with Rome, the Samnites invaded Lu- 
cania. The Lucanians invoked the assistance of the Romans, who 
forthwith declared war against the Samnites. The Repixblic had 
now to contend at one and the same time against the Etruscans, 
Umbrians, Gauls, and Samnites ; but she carried on the struggle 
with the utmost energy, attacking the Etruscans, Umbrians, and 
Gauls in the north, and the Samnites in the south. At length, in 
B.C. 295, the Samnites joined their confederates in Umbria. In 
this country, near the town of Sentinum, a desperate battle was 
fought, which decided the fortune of the war. The two Roman 
Consuls were the aged Q. Eabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus. 
The victory was long doubtful. The wing commanded by Decius 
was giving way before the terrible onset of the Gauls, when he de- 
termined to imitate the example of his father, and to devote him- 
self and the enemy to destruction. His death gave fresh courage 
to his men, and Fabius gained a complete and decisive victoiy. 
Gellius Egnatius, the Samnite general, who had taken the most 
active part in forming the coalition, was slain. But, though the 
League was thus broken up, the Samnites continued the struggle 
for five years longer. During this period C. Pontius, who had de- 
feated the Romans at the Caudine Forks, again appeared, after 
twenty-seven years, as the leader of the Samnites, but was defeat- 
ed by Q. Fabius Maximus with great loss and taken prisoner. Be- 
ing carried to Rome, he was put to death as the triumphal car of 
the victor ascended the Capitol (b.c. 292). This shameful act has 
been justly branded as one of the greatest stains on the Roman an- 
nals. Two years afterward the Samnites were unable to continue 
any longer the hopeless struggle, and became the subjects of Rome. 
The third and last Samnite war was brought to a close in b.c. 290. 




Coin of Pyrrhus. 



CHAPTER IX. 

FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGA- 
TION OF ITALY. B.C. 290-265. 

Ten years elapsed from the conclusion of the third Samnite war 
to the arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy. During this time the Etruscans 
and Gauls renewed the war in the north, but were defeated with 
great slaughter near the Lake Vadimo. This decisive battle ap- 
pears to have completely crushed the Etruscan power ; and it in- 
flicted so severe a blow upon the Gauls that we hear no more of 
their ravages for the next sixty years. 

In the south the Lucanians also rose against Rome. The exten- 
sion of the Roman dominion in the south of the peninsula had 
brought the state into connection with the Greek cities, which at 
one period were so numerous and powerful as to give to this part 
of Italy the name of Magna Greecia.* Many of these cities had 
now fallen into decay through internal dissensions and the con- 
quests of the Lucanians and other Sabellian tribes ; but Tarentura, 
originally a Lacedaemonian colony, still maintained her former pow- 
er and splendor. The Tarentines naturally regarded with extreme 
jealousy the progress of the Roman arms in the south of Italy, and 
had secretly instigated the Etruscans and Lucanians to form a new 
coalition against Rome. But the immediate cause of the war be- 
tween the Lucanians and Romans was the assistance which the 
latter had rendered to the Greek city of Thurii. Being attacked 
by the Lucanians, the Thurians applied to Rome for aid, and the 
Consul C. Fabricius not only relieved Thurii, but defeated the Lu- 
canians and their allies in several engagements (b.c. 282). Upon 
the departure of Fabricius a Roman garrison Avas left in Thurii. 
The only mode now of maintaining communication between Rome 
and Thurii was by sea ; but this was virtually forbidden by a treaty 
* See p. 6. 



B.C. 281. PYERHUS. 61 

which the Romans had made with Tarentum nearly twenty years 
before, in which treaty it was stipulated that no Roman ships of 
war should pass the Lacinian promontory. But circumstances 
were now changed, and the Senate determined that their vessels 
should no longer be debarred from the Gulf of Tarentum. There 
was a small squadron often ships in those seas under the command 
of L. Valerius ; and one day, when the Tarentines were assembled 
in the theatre, which looked over the sea, they saw the Roman 
squadron sailing toward their harbor. This open violation of the 
treaty seemed a premeditated insult, and a demagogue urged the 
people to take summary vengeance. They rushed down to the 
harbor, quickly manned some ships, and gained an easy victory 
over the small Roman squadron. Only half made their escape, 
four were sunk, one taken, and Valerius himself killed. After this 
the Tarentines marched against Thurii, compelled the inhabitants 
to dismiss the Roman garrison, and then plundered the town. 

The Senate sent an embassy to Tarentum to complain of these 
outrages and to demand satisfaction. L. Postumius, who was at 
the head of the embassy, was introduced with his colleagues into the 
theatre, to state to the assembled people the demands of the Ro- 
man Senate. He began to address them in Greek, but his mis- 
takes in the language were received with peals of laughter from the 
thoughtless mob. Unable to obtain a hearing, much less an an- 
swer, Postumius was leaving the theatre, when a drunken buffoon 
rushed up to him and sullied his white robe in the most disgusting 
manner. The whole theatre rang with shouts of laughter and 
clapping of hands, which became louder and louder when Postu- 
mius held up his sullied robe and showed it to the people. " Laugh 
on now," he cried, "but this robe shall be washed in torrents of 
your blood." 

War was now inevitable. The luxurious Tarentines sent an em- 
bassy to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, begging him, in the name of all 
the Italian Greeks, to cross over into Italy in order to conduct the 
war against the Romans. They told him that they only wanted a 
genera], and that all the nations of Southern Italy would flock to 
his standard. Pyrrhus needed no persuasion to engage in an en- 
terprise which realized the earliest dreams of his ambition. The 
conquest of Italy would naturally lead to the sovereignty of Sicily 
and Africa, and he would then be able to return to Greece with 
the united forces of the West to overcome his rivals and reign as 
master of the world. But as he would not trust the success of his 
enterprise to the valor and fidelity of Italian troops, he began to 
make preparations to carry over a powerful army. Meantime he 
sent Milo, one of his generals, with a detachment of 3000 men, to 



62 HISTOEY OF ROME. Chap. IX. 

garrison the citadel of Tarentum. Pyrrhus himself crossed over 
from Epirus toward the end of B.C. 281, taking with him 20,000 
foot, 3000 horse, and 20 elephants. 

Upon reaching Tarentum he began to make preparations to 
carry on the war with activity. The Tarentines soon found they 
had obtained a master rather than an ally. He shut up the thea- 
tre and all other public places, and compelled their young men to 
serve in his ranks. Notwithstanding all his activity, the Romans 
were first in the field. The Consul M.Valerius Lgevinus marched 
into Lucania; but as the army of Pyrrhus was inferior to that of 
the Romans, he attempted to gain time by negotiation in order that 
he might be joined by his Italian allies. He accordingly wrote to 
the Consul, offering to arbitrate between Rome and the Italian 
states ; but Lsevinus bluntly told him to mind his own business and 
retire to Epirus. Pearing to remain inactive any longer, although 
he was not yet joined by his allies, Pyrrhus marched out against the 
Romans with his own troops and the Tarentines. He took up his 
position between the towns of Pandosia and Heraclea, on the River 
Siris. The Romans, who were encamped on the other side of the 
river, were the first to begin the battle. They crossed the river, 
and were immediately attacked by the cavalry of Pyrrhus, who led 
them to the charge in person, and distinguished himself as usual 
by the most daring acts of valor. The Romans, however, bravely 
sustained the attack ; and Pyrrhus, finding that his cavalry could 
not decide the day, ordered his infantry to advance. The battle 
was still contested most furiously : seven times did both armies ad- 
vance and retreat ; and it was not till Pyrrhus brought forward his 
elephants, which bore down every thing before them, that the Ro- 
mans took to flight, leaving their camp to the conqueror (b.c.280). 
This battle taught Pyrrhus the difiiculty of the enterprise he had 
undertaken. Before the engagement, when he saw the Romans 
forming their line as they crossed the river, he said to his officers, 
" In war, at any rate, these barbarians are not barbarous ;" and aft- 
erward, as he saw the Roman dead lying upon the field with all 
their wounds in front, he exclaimed, "If these were my soldiers, 
or if I were their general, we should conquer the world." And, 
though his loss had been inferior to that of the Romans, still so 
large a number of his officers and best troops had fallen, that he 
said, "Another such victory, and I must return to Epirus alone." 
He therefore resolved to avail himself of this victory to conclude, 
if possible, an advantageous peace. He sent his minister Cineas to 
Rome with the proposal that the Romans should recognize the in- 
dependence of the Greeks in Italy, restore to the Samnites, Luca- 
nians, Apulians, and Bruttians all the possessions which they had 



B.C. 280. EMBASSY TO PYERHUS.— FABKICIUS. 63 

lost in war, and make peace with himself and the Tarentines. As 
soon as peace was concluded on these terms he promised to return 
all the Roman prisoners without ransom. Cineas, whose persua- 
sive eloquence was said to have won more towns for Pyrrhus than 
his arms, neglected no means to induce the Romans to accept these 
terms. The prospects of the Republic seemed so dark and threat- 
ening that many members of the Senate thouglit it would be more 
prudent to comply with the demands of the king ; and this party 
would probably have carried the day had it not been for the patri- 
otic^peech of the aged Ap. Claudius Ceecus, who denounced the 
idea of a peace with a victorious foe with such effect that the Sen- 
ate declined the proposals of the king, and commanded Cineas to 
quit Rome the same day. 

Cineas returned to Pyrrhus, and told him he must hope for noth- 
ing from negotiation ; that the city was like a temple of the gods, 
and the Senate an assembly of kings. Pyrrhus now advanced by 
rapid marches toward Rome, ravaging the country as he went along, 
and without encountering any serious opposition. He at length 
arrived at Preeneste, which fell into his hands. He was now only 
24: miles from Rome, and his outposts advanced six miles farther. 
Another march would have brought him under the walls of the 
city ; but at this moment he learned that peace was concluded 
with the Etruscans, and that the other Consul had returned with 
his army to Rome. All hope of compelling the Romans to accept 
the peace was now gone, and he therefore resolved to retreat. He 
retired slowly into Campania, and from thence withdrew into win- 
ter quarters to Tarentum. 

As soon as the armies were quartered for the winter, the Romans 
sent an embassy to Pyrrhus to negotiate the ransom or exchange 
of prisoners. The embassadors were received by Pyrrhus in the 
most distinguished manner ; and his interviews with C. Fabricius, 
who was at the head of the embassy, form one of the most famous 
stories in Roman history. Eabricius was a fine specimen of the 
sturdy Roman character. He cultivated his farm with his own 
hands, and, like his contemporary Curius, was celebrated for his in- 
corruptible integrity. The king attempted in vain to work upon 
his cupidity and his fears. He steadily refused the large sums of 
money offered by Pyrrhus ; and when an elephant, concealed be- 
hind him by a curtain, waved his trunk over his head, Fabricius re- 
mained unmoved. Such respect did his conduct inspire, that Pyr- 
rhus attempted to persuade him to enter into his service and accom- 
pany him to Greece. The object of the embassy failed. The king 
refused to exchange the prisoners ; but, to show them his trust in 
their honor, he allowed them to go to Rome in order to celebrate the 



64 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. IX. 

Saturnalia, stipulating that they were to return to Tarentum if the 
Senate would not accept the terms which he had previously offered 
through Cineas. The Senate remained firm in their resolve, and 
all the prisoners returned to Pyrrhus, the punishment of death hav- 
ing been denounced against those who should remain in the city. 

In the following year (b.c. 279) the war was renewed, and a bat- 
tle was fought near Asculum. The Romans fled to their camp, 
which was so near to the field of battle that not more than 6000 
fell, while Pyrrhus lost more than half this number. The victory 
yielded Pyrrhus little or no advantage, and he was obliged to retire 
to Tarentum for the winter without effecting any thing more dlwing 
the campaign. In the last battle, as well as in the former, the 
brunt of the action had fallen almost exclusively upon his Greek 
troops ; and the state of Greece, which this year was overrun by 
the Gauls, made it hopeless for him to expect any re-enforcements 
from Epirus. He was therefore unwilling to hazard his surviving 
Greeks by another campaign with the Romans, and accordingly lent 
a ready ear to the invitations of the Greeks in Sicily, who begged 
him to come to their assistance against the Carthaginians. It was 
necessary, however, first to suspend hostilities with the Romans, 
who were likewise anxious to get rid of so formidable an opponent, 
that they might complete the subjugation of Southern Italy without 
farther interruption. When both parties had the same wishes it 
was not difficult to find a fair pretext for bringing the war to a con- 
clusion. This was afforded at the beginning of the following year 
(B.C. 278) by one of the servants of Pyrrhus deserting to the Ro- 
mans, and proposing to the Consuls to poison his master. They 
sent back the deserter to the king, saying that they abhorred a vic- 
tory gained by treason. Thereupon Pyrrhus, to show his gratitude, 
sent Cineas to Rome with all the Roman prisoners, without ransom 
and without conditions ; and the Romans granted him a truce. 

Leaving Milo with part of his troops in possession of Tarentum, 
Pyrrhus now crossed over into Sicily. He remained there upward 
of two years. At first he met with brilliant success, and deprived 
the Carthaginians of a great part of the island. Subsequently, 
however, he received a severe repulse in an attempt which he made 
upon the impregnable town of Lilyboeum. The fickle Greeks now 
began to form cabals and plots against him. This led to retalia- 
tion on his part, and he soon became as anxious to abandon the isl- 
and as he had been before to leave Italy. Accordingly, when his 
Italian allies again begged him to come to their assistance, he read- 
ily complied with their request, and arrived in Italy in the autumn 
of B.C. 276. His troops were now almost the same in number as 
when he first landed in Italy, but very different in quality. The 



B.C. 274. DEPARTURE OF PYRRHUS FROM ITALY. 65 

faithful Epirots had for the most part fallen, and his present soldiers 
consisted chiefly of mercenaries, whom he had levied in Italy. One 
of his first operations was the recovery of Locri, which had revolt- 
ed to the Romans ; and as he here found himself in great difficul- 
ties for want of money to pay his troops, he was induced to take 
possession of the treasures of the Temple of Proserpine in that 
town ; but the ships conveying the money were wrecked. This 
circumstance deeply aifected the mind of Pyrrhus ; he ordered the 
treasures which were saved to be restored to the temple, and from 
this time became haunted by the idea that the wrath of Proserpine 
was pursuing him, and dragging him down to ruin. 

The following year (b.c. 274) closed the career of Pyh-hus in 
Italy. The Consul M'. Curius marched into Samnium, and his 
colleague into Lucania. Pyrrhus advanced against Curius, who 
was encamped in the neighborhood of Beneventum, and resolved to 
fight with him before he was joined by his colleague. As Curius 
did not wish to risk a battle with his own army alone, Pyrrhus 
planned a night-attack upon his camp. But he miscalculated the 
time and the distance ; the torches burnt out, the men missed their 
way, and it was already broad daylight when he reached the heights 
above the Roman camp. Still their arrival was quite unexpected ; 
but, as a battle was now inevitable, Curius led out his men. The 
troops of Pyrrhus, exhausted by fatigue, were easily put to the rout; 
two elephants were killed and eight more taken. Encouraged by 
this success, Curius no longer hesitated to meet the king in the 
open plain, and gained a decisive victory. Pyrrhus arrived at Ta- 
rentum with only a few horsemen. Shortly afterward he crossed 
over to Greece, leaving Milo with a garrison at Tarentum. Two 
years afterward he perished in an attack upon Argos, ingloriously 
slain by a tile hurled by a woman from the roof of a house. 

The departure of Pyrrhus left the Lucanians and other Italian 
tribes exposed to the full power of Rome. They nevertheless con- 
tinued the hopeless struggle a little longer; but in b.c. 272 Ta- 
rentum fell into the hands of Rome, and in a few years afterward 
every nation in Italy, to the south of the Macra and the Rubicon, 
owned the supremacy of Rome. She had now become one of the 
first powers in the ancient world. The defeat of Pyrrhus attract- 
ed the attention of the nations of the East; and in b.c. 273, Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, sent an embassy to Rome, and 
concluded a treaty with the Republic. 

The dominion which Rome had acquired by her arms v^^as con- 
firmed by her policy. She pursued the same system which she 
had adopted upon the subjugation of Latium, keeping the cities iso- 
lated from one another, but at the same time allowing them to 
E 



66 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. IX. 

manage their own affuirs. The population of Italy was divided 
into three classes, Gives Romani, Nomen Latinum, and Socii. 

I. Gives Romani, or Roman Citizens. — These consisted: (1.) 
Of the citizens of the thirty-three Tribes into which the Roman 
territory was now divided, and which extended north of the Tiber 
a little beyond Veii, and southward as far as the Liris ; though even 
in this district there were some towns, such as Tibur and Praeneste, 
Avhich did not possess the Roman franchise. (2.) Of the citizens 
of Roman colonies planted in different parts of Italy. (3.) Of the 
citizens of municipal towns upon whom the Roman franchise was 
conferred. In some cases the Roman franchise was granted with- 
out the Jlight of voting in the Comitia (civitas sine suffrayio), but 
in course of time this right also was generally conceded. 

II. Nomen Latinum, or the Latin Name. — This term was ap- 
plied to the colonies founded by Rome which did not enjoy the 
rights of Roman citizenship, and which stood in the same position 
with regard to the Roman state as had been formerly occupied by 
the cities of the Latin League. The name originated at a period 
when colonies were actually sent out in common by the Romans 
and Latins, but similar colonies continued to be founded by the 
Romans alone long after the extinction of the Latin League. In 
fact, the majority of the colonies planted by Rome were of this kind, 
the Roman citizens who took part in them voluntarily resigning 
their citizenship, in consideration of the grants of land which they 
obtained. But the citizen of any Latin colony might emigrate to 
Rome, and be enrolled in one of the Roman tribes, provided he had 
held a magistracy in his native town. These Latin colonies — the 
Nomen Latinum — were some of the most flourishing towns in Italy. 

III. Socii, or Allies, included the rest of Italy. Each of the 
towns which had been conquered by Rome had formed a treaty 
(foedus) with the latter, which determined their rights and duties. 
These treaties were of various kinds, some securing nominal inde- 
pendence to the towns, and others reducing them to absolute sub- 
jection. 

The political changes in Rome itself, from the time of the Latin 
wars, have been already in gi-eat part anticipated. Appius Clau- 
dius, afterward named Csecus, or the Blind, introduced a danger- 
ous innovation in the constitution during the Second Samnite War. 
Slavery existed at Rome, as among the other nations of antiquity ; 
and as many slaves, from various causes, acquired their liberty, 
there gradually sprung up at Rome a large and indigent popula- 
tion of servile origin. These Freedmen were Roman citizens, but 
they could only be enrolled in the four city-tribes, so that, however 
numerous they might become, they could influence only the votes 



B.C. 312. CENSORSHIP OF APPIUS CLAUDIUS. 



67 



of four tribes. Appius Claudius, in his Censorship (b.c. 312), when 
making out the lists of citizens, allowed the Freedmen to enroll 
themselves in any tribe they pleased ; but this dangerous innova- 
tion was abolished by the Censors Q. Fabius Maximus and P. De- 
cius Mus (B.C. 301), who restored all the Freedmen to the four city- 
tribes. The Censorship of Appius is, however, memorable for the 
great public works which he executed. He made the great mili- 
tary road called the Appian Way (Via Appia), leading from Rome 
to Capua, a distance of 120 miles, which long afterward was con- 
tinued across the Apennines to Brundusium. He also executed 
the first of the great aqueducts (Aqua Appia) which supplied Rome 
with such an abundance of water. 

Cn. Flavins, the son of a Freedman, and Secretary to Appius 
Claudius, divulged the forms and times to be observed in legal pro- 
ceedings. These the Patricians had hitherto kept secret ; they 
alone knew the days when the courts would be held, and the tech- 
nical jDleadings according to which all actions must proceed. But 
Flavius, having become acquainted with these secrets, by means of 
his patron, published in a book a list of the formularies to be ob- 
served in the sevei'al kinds of actions, and also set up in the forum 
a whited tablet containing a list of all the days on Avhich the courts 
could be held. In spite of his ignominious birth, he was made a 
Senator by Appius Claudius, and was elected Curule ^dile by the 
people. 




Temple of Vesta. (From a Coin.) 




Mount Ercta in fcjicily. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 6.0.264-241. 

Rome, now mistress of Italy, entered upon a long and arduous 
struggle with Carthage, which ruled without a rival the western 
waters of the Mediterranean. This great and powerful city was 
founded by the Phoenicians* of Tyre in e.g. 814, according to the 
common chronology. Its inhabitants were consequently a branch 
of the Semitic race, to which the Hebrews also belonged. Carthage 
rose to greatness by her commerce, and gradually extended her em- 
pire over the whole of the north of Africa, from the Straits of Her- 
cules to the borders of Cyrene. Her Libyan subjects she treated 
with extreme harshness, and hence they were always ready to re- 
volt against her so soon as a foreign enemy appeared upon her soil. 

The two chief magistrates at Carthage were elected annually out 
of a few of the cliief families, and were called Svffetes.^ There was 
a Senate of Three Hundred members, and also a smaller Council 
of One Hundred, of which the latter were the most powerful, hold- 
ing office for life, and exercising an almost sovereign sway over the 
other authorities in the state. The government was a complete oli- 
garchy ; and a few old, rich, and powerful families divided among 
themselves the influence and power of the state. These great fam- 
ilies were often opposed to each other in bitter feuds, but concurred 
in treating with contempt the mass of the people. 

In her foreign wars Carthage depended upon mercenary troops, 
which her great wealth enabled her to procure in abundance from 
Spain, Italy, and Greece, as well as from Libya. Sardinia and 
Corsica were among her earliest conquests, and Sicily was also one 

* The Phoenicians were called by the Latins Poem\ whence the adjective pu- 
nicus., like rrninire from incenia^ and punire from poena. 
t Probably the same as the Hebrew Shofetim, i. c, Judges. 



B.C. 264-21 J. THE FIRST FUNIC WAR. 69 

of the first objects of her military enterprise. The Phoenician col- 
onies in this island came under her dominion as the poAver of Tyre 
declined; and having thus obtained a firm footing in Sicily, she 
carried on a long struggle for the supremacy with the Greek cities. 
It was here that she came into contact with the Roman arms. The 
relations of Rome and Carthage had hitherto been peaceful, and 
a treaty, concluded between the two states in the first years of the 
Roman republic, had been renewed more than once. But the ex- 
tension of Roman dominion had excited the jealousy of Carthage, 
and Rome began to turn longing eyes to the fair island at the foot 
of her empire. It was evident that a struggle was not far distant, 
and Pyrrhus could not help exclaiming, as he quitted Sicily, "How 
fine a battle-field are we leaving to the Romans and Carthaginians !" 
The city of Messana, situated on the straits which divide Sicily 
from Italy, was occupied at this time by the Mamertini. They 
were a body of Campanian mercenaries, chiefly of Sabellian origin, 
who had served under Agathocles, and after the death of that ty- 
rant (B.C. 289) were marched to Messana, in order to be transport- 
ed to Italy. Being hospitably received within the city, they sud- 
denly rose against the inhabitants, massacred the male population, 
and made themselves masters of their wives and property. They 
now took the name of Mamertini, or "Children of Mars," from 
Mamers, a Sabellian name for that deity. They rapidly extended 
their power over a considerable portion of the north of Sicily, and 
were formidable enemies to Syracuse. Hiero, having become king 
of Syracuse, determined to destroy this nest of robbers, advanced 
against them with a large army, defeated them in battle, and shut 
them up within Messana. The Mamertines were obliged to look 
out for help ; one party wished to appeal to the Carthaginians, and 
the other to invoke the assistance of Rome. The latter ultimately 
prevailed, and an embassy was sent to implore immediate aid. The 
temptation was strong, for the occupation of Messana by a Cartha- 
ginian garrison might prove dangerous to the tranquillity of Italy. 
Still the Senate hesitated ; for only six years before Hiero had as- 
sisted the Romans in punishing the Campanian mercenaries, who 
had seized Rhegium in the same way as the Mamertines had made 
themselves masters of Messana. The voice of justice prevailed, 
and the Senate declined the proposal. But the Consuls, thirsting 
for glory, called together the popular assembly, who eagerly voted 
that the Mamertines should be assisted ; in other words, that the 
Carthaginians should not be allowed to obtain possession of Mes- 
sana. The Consul App. Claudius, the son of the blind Censor, was 
to lead an army into Sicily. But during this delay the Cartha- 
ginian party in IMessana had obtained tlie ascendency, and Hanno, 



70 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. X. 

with a Carthaginian garrison, had been admitted into the citadel. 
Hiero had concluded peace with the Mamertines through the medi- 
ation of the Carthaginians, so that there was no longer even a pre- 
text for the interference of the Romans. But a legate of the Con- 
sul App. Claudius, having crossed to Sicily, persuaded the Mamer- 
tines to expel the Carthaginian garrison. Hiero and the Cartha- 
ginians now proceeded to lay siege to Messana by sea and land, and 
the Romans no longer hesitated to declare war against Carthage. 
Such was the commencement of the first Punic War (b.c. 264). 

The Carthaginians commanded the sea with a powerful fleet, 
while the Romans had no ships of war worthy of the name. But 
the Consul App. Claudius, having contrived to elude the Cartha- 
ginian squadron, landed near the town of Messana, and defeated in 
succession the forces of Syracuse and Carthage. In the following 
year (263) the Romans followed up their success against Hiero. 
The two Consuls advanced to the walls of Syracuse, ravaging the 
territory of the city and capturing many of its dependent towns. 
The king became alarmed at the success of the Romans ; and 
thinking that they would prove more powerful than the Cartha- 
ginians, he concluded a peace with Rome. From this time till his 
death, a period of nearly fifty years, Hiero remained the firm and 
steadfast ally of the Romans. 

The Romans, now freed from the hostility of Syracuse, laid siege 
to Agrigentum, the second of the Greek cities in Sicily, which had 
espoused the cause of the Carthaginians at the commencement of 
the war. The siege lasted seven months, and numbers perished on 
both sides. But at length the Romans gained a decisive victory 
over the Carthaginian army which had been sent to raise the siege, 
and obtained possession of the town (b.c. 262). 

The first three years of the war had already made the Romans 
masters of the greater part of Sicily. But the coasts of Italy were 
exposed to the ravages of the Carthaginian fleet, and the Romans 
saw that they could not hope to bring the war to a successful term- 
ination so long as Carthage was mistress of the sea. They had 
only a small number of triremes, galleys with three banks of oars, 
and were quite unable to cope with the quinqueremes, or large 
vessels with five banks of oars, of which the Carthaginian navy 
consisted. The Senate, with characteristic energy, determined to 
build a fleet of these larger vessels. A Carthaginian quinquereme, 
which had been wrecked upon the coast of Italy, served as a mod- 
el ; and in the short space of sixty days from the time the trees 
were felled, 130 ships were launched. While the ships were build- 
ing, the rowers were trained on scaffolds placed upon the land like 
benches of ships at sea. We can not but feel astonished at the 



B.C. 264-241. THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 



71 



daring of the Romans, who, with ships thus hastily and cluMsily 

built, and with crews imperfectly trained, sailed to attack the navy 

of the first maritime state in the world. This was in the fifth year 

of the war (b.c. 260). One of the Consuls, Cn. Cornelius, first put 

to sea with only 17 ships, but was surprised near Lipara, and taken 

prisoner with the whole of his squadron. His colleague, C. Duilius, 

now took the command of the rest of the fleet. He saw that the 

only means of conquering the Carthaginians by sea was to deprive 

them of all the advantages of manoeuvring, and to take their ships 

by boarding. For this purpose, 

every ship was provided with a 

boarding-bridge 36 feet in length, 

which was pulled up by a rope 

and fastened to a mast in the 

fore part of the ship. As soon 

as an enemy's ship came near 

enough, the rope was loosened, 

the bridge fell down, and became 

fastened by means of an iron 

spike in its under side. The 

boarders then poured down the 

bridge into the enemy's ship. 

Thus prepared, Duilius boldly 

sailed out to meet the fleet of the 

enemy. He found them ofiT the 

Sicilian coast, near Mylse. The 

Carthaginians hastened to the 

fight as if to a triumph, but 

their ships were rapidly seized 

by the boarding - bridges, and 

when it came to a close fight 

their crews were no match for 

the veteran soldiers of Rome. 

The victory of Duilius was com- 

l^lete. Thirty-one of the enemy's 

ships were taken, and fourteen 

destroyed ; the rest only saved themselves by an ignominious flight. 

On his return to Rome, Duilius celebrated a magnificent triumph. 

Public honors were conferred upon him ; he was to be escorted 

home in the evening from banquets by the light of torches and the 

sound of the flute, and a column adorned with the beaks of the 

conquered ships, and thence called the Columna Rostrata, was set 

up in the forum.* 

* The inscription upon this column, or, at any rate, a very ancient copy of it, 
is still preserved in the Capitoliue Museum at Rome. 




Columna Rostrata. 



72 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. X. 

For the next few years the war languished, and nothing of im- 
portance was effected on either side ; but in the ninth year of the 
struggle (B.C. 256) the Romans resolved by strenuous exertions to 
bring it to a conclusion. They therefore made preparations for 
invading Africa with a great force. The two Consuls, M. Atilius 
Regulus and L. Manlius, set sail with 330 ships, took the legions 
on board in Sicily, and then put out to sea in order to cross over to 
Africa. The Carthaginian fleet, consisting of 350 ships, met them 
near Ecnomus, on the southern coast of Sicily. The battle which 
ensued was the greatest sea-fight that the ancient world had yet 
seen. The boarding-bridges of the Romans again annihilated all 
the advantages of maritime skill. Their victory was decisive. 
They lost only 2i ships, while they destroyed 30 of the enemy's 
vessels, and took 04 with all their crews. The passage to Africa 
was now clear, and the remainder of the Carthaginian fleet hasten- 
ed home to defend the capital. The Romans landed near the town 
of Clupea, or Aspis, which they took, and there established their 
head-quarters. From thence they laid waste the Carthaginian ter- 
ritory with fire and sword, and collected an immense booty from 
the defenseless country. On the approach of winter, Manlius, one 
of the Consuls, by order of the Senate, returned to Rome with half 
of the army, while Regulus remained with the other half to prose- 
cute the war. He carried on his operations with the utmost vigor, 
and was greatly assisted by the incompetency of the Carthaginian 
generals. The enemy had collected a considerable force, which 
they intrusted to three commanders, Hasdrubal, Bostar, and Ha- 
milcar ; but these generals avoided the plains, where their cavalry 
and elephants would have given them an advantage over the Ro- 
man army, and withdrew into the mountains. There they were 
attacked by Regulus, and utterly defeated with great loss ; 15,000 
men were killed in battle, and 5000 men, with 18 elephants, were 
taken. The Carthaginian troops retired within the walls of the 
capital, and Regulus now overran the country without opposition. 
Many towns fell into the power of the Romans, and among others 
Tunis, which was at the distance of only 20 miles from Carthage. 
The Numidians took the opportunity of recovering their independ- 
ence, and their roving bands completed the devastation of the coun- 
try. The Carthaginians, in despair, sent a herald to Regulus to so- 
licit peace ; but the Roman general, intoxicated with success, would 
only grant it on such intolerable terms that the Carthaginians re- 
solved to continue the war and hold out to the last. In the midst 
of their distress and alarm, succor came to them from an unexpect- 
ed quarter. Among the Greek mercenaries who had lately arrived 
at Carthage was a Lacedaemonian of the name of Xanthippus. He 



B.C. 2G4-241. THE FIRST TUNIC WAR. 73 

pointed out to the Carthaginians that their defeats were owing to 
the incompetency of their generals, and not to the superiority of 
the Roman arms ; and he inspired such confidence in the govern- 
ment, that he was forthwith placed at the head of their troops. 
Relying on his 4000 cavalry and 100 elephants, Xanthippus bold- 
ly marched into the open country to meet the enemy, though his 
forces were very inferior in number to the Romans. Regulus read- 
ily accepted battle thus offered ; but it ended in his total over- 
throw. Thirty thousand Romans were slain ; scarcely 2000 es- 
caped to Clupea, and Regulus himself, with 500 more, was taken 
prisoner. This was in the year B.C. 255. 

Another disaster awaited the Romans in this year. Their fleet, 
which had been sent to Africa to carry off the remains of the army 
of Regulus, had not only succeeded in their object, but had gained 
a victoiy over the Carthaginian fleet. They were returning home 
when they Avere overtaken off Camarina, in Sicily, by a fearful 
storm. Nearly the entire fleet Avas destroyed, and the coast was 
strewed for miles with wrecks and corpses. 

The Romans, with undiminished energy, immediately set to work 
to build a new fleet, and in less than three months 220 ships were 
ready for sea. But the same fate awaited them. In B.C. 253 the 
Consuls had ravaged the coasts of Africa, but, on their return, were 
again surprised by a fearful storm off Cape Palinurus. A hundred 
and fifty sliips were wrecked. This blow, coming so soon after 
the other, damped the courage even of the Romans ; they determ- 
ined not to rebuild the fleet, and to keep only 60 ships for the de- 
fense of the coast of Italy and the protection of the transports. 

The war was now confined to Sicily ; but, since the defeat of 
Regulus, the Roman soldiers had been so greatly alarmed by the 
elephants, that their generals did not venture to attack the Cartha- 
ginians. At length, in B.C. 250, the Roman proconsul, L. Metellus, 
accepted battle under the walls of Panormus, and gained a decisive 
vsctory. The Carthaginians lost 20,000 men ; 13 of their generals 
adorned the triumph of Metellus ; and 104 elephants were also led 
in the triumphal j)rocession. This was the most important battle 
that had been yet fought in Sicily, and had a decisive influence 
upon the issue of the contest. It so raised the spirits of the Ro- 
mans that they determined once more to build a fleet of 200 sail. 
The Carthaginians, on the other hand, were anxious to bring the 
war to an end, and accordingly sent an embassy to Rome to pro- 
pose an exchange of jjrisoners, and to offer terms of peace. 

Regulus, who had been now five years in captivity, was allowed 
to accompany the embassadors, with the promise that he would re- 
turn to Carthage if their proposals were declined. This embassy is 



74 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. X. 

the subject of one of the most celebrated stories in the Roman an- 
nals. The orators and poets relate how Regulus at first refused to 
enter the city as a slave of the Carthaginians ; how afterward he 
would not give his opinion in the Senate, as he had ceased by his 
captivity to be a member of that illustrious body ; how, at length, 
when induced by his countrymen to speak, he endeavored to dis- 
suade the Senate from assenting to a peace, or even to an exchange 
of prisoners ; and when he saw them wavering, from their desire to 
redeem him from captivity, how he told them that the Carthagini- 
ans had given him a slow poison, which would soon terminate his 
life ; and how, finally, when the Senate, through his influence, re- 
fused the offers of the Carthaginians, he firmly resisted all the per- 
suasions of his friends to remain in Rome, and returned to Car- 
thage, where a martyr's death awaited him. It is related that he 
was placed in a barrel covered over Avith iron nails, and thus per- 
ished. Other writers state, in addition, that, after his eyelids had 
been cut off, he was first thrown into a dark dungeon, and then sud- 
denly exposed to the full rays of a burning sun. When the news 
of the barbarous death of Regulus reached Rome, the Senate is said 
to have given Hamilcar and Bostar, two of the noblest Carthagin- 
ian prisoners, to the family of Regulus, who revenged themselves 
by putting them to death with cruel torments. 

Regulus was one of the favorite characters of early Roman sto- 
ry. Not only was he celebrated for his heroism in giving the Sen- 
ate advice which secured him a martyr's death, but also on account 
of his frugality and simplicity of life. Like Fabricius and Curius, 
he lived on his hereditary farm, which he cultivated with his own 
hands ; and subsequent ages loved to tell how he petitioned the 
Senate for his recall from Africa when he was in the full career of 
victory, as his farm was going to ruin in his absence, and his fam- 
ily was suffering from want. 

The Carthaginian dominion in Sicily was now confined to the 
northwestern corner of the island, and Lilybieum and Drepanum 
were the only two towns remaining in their hands. Lilybaeum, 
situated upon a promontory at the western extremity of the island, 
was the strong-hold of the Carthaginian power ; and accordingly 
the Romans determined to concentrate all their efforts, and to em- 
ploy the armies of both Consuls in attacking this city.. This siege, 
■which is one of the most memorable in ancient history, com- 
menced in B.C. 250, and lasted till the termination of the war. In 
the second year of the siege (b.c. 249), the Consul P. Claudius, 
who lay before Lilybaeum, formed the design of attacking the Car- 
thaginian fleet in the neighboring harbor of Drepanum. In vain 
did the auguries warn him. The keeper of the sacred chickens told 



B.C. 264-241. THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 75 

him that they would not eat. "At any rate," said he, "let them 
drink;" and he ordered them to be thrown overboard. His impi- 
ety met with a meet reward. He was defeated with great loss ; 
93 of his ships were taken or destroyed, and only 30 escaped. 
Great was the indignation at Rome. He was recalled by the Sen- 
ate, ordered to appoint a Dictator, and then to lay down his office. 
Claudius, in scorn, named M. Claudius Glycias, a son of one of his 
freedmen. But the Senate would not brook this insult ; they de- 
prived the unworthy man of the honor, and appointed in his place 
A. Atilius Calatinus. 

The other Consul, C. Junius, was equally unfortunate. He was 
sailing along the coasts of Sicily with a convoy of 800 vessels, in- 
tended to relieve the wants of the army at Lilybseum, when he was 
overtaken by one of those terrible storms which had twice before 
proved so fatal to the Roman fleets. The transports were all dash- 
ed to pieces, and of his 105 ships of war only two escaped. Thus 
the Roman fleet was a third time destroyed. These repeated mis- 
fortunes compelled the Romans to abandon any farther attempts 
to contest the supremacy of the sea. 

About this time a really great man was placed at the head of 
the Carthaginian army — a man who, at an earlier period of the war, 
might have brought the struggle to a very different termination. 
This was the celebrated Hamilcar Barca,* the father of the still 
more celebrated Hannibal. He was still a young man at the time 
of his appointment to the command in Sicily (b.c. 247). His very 
first operations were equally daring and successful. Instead of 
confining himself to the defense of Lilybceum and Drepanum, with 
which the Carthaginian commanders had been hitherto contented, 
he made descents upon the coast of Italy, and then suddenly land- 
ed on the north of Sicily, and established himself, with his whole 
army, on a mountain called Hercte (the modern Monte Pellegrino)^ 
which overhung the town of Panormus (the modern Palermo)^ one 
of the most important of the Roman possessions. Here he main- 
tained himself for neai-ly three years, to the astonishment alike of 
friends and foes, and from hence he made continual descents into 
the enemy's country, and completely prevented tliem from making 
any vigorous attacks either upon Lilybteum or Drepanum. All the 
efforts of the Romans to dislodge him were unsuccessful ; and he 
only quitted Hercte in order to seize Eryx, a town situated upon 
the mountain of this name, and only six miles from Drepanum. 
This position he held for two years longer ; and the Romans, de- 
spairing of driving the Carthaginians out of Sicily so long as they 
were masters of the sea, resolved to build another fleet. In b.c. 
* Earca is the same as the Hebrew word Bmak^ " lightning." 



76 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



Chap. X. 



242 the Consul Lutatius Catulus put to sea with a fleet of 200 ships, 
and in the following year he gained a decisive victory over the Car- 
thaginian fleet, com- 
manded by Hanno, 
off the group of isl- 
ands called the jEga- 
tes. 

This victory gave 
the Romans the su- 
premacy by sea. Li- 
lybiBum, Drepanum, 
and Eryx might now 
be reduced by fam- 
ine. The Carthagin- 
ians were weary of 
the war, and indis- 
posed to make any 
farther sacrifices. 
They therefore sent 
orders to Hamilcar to 
make peace on the 
best terms he could. 
It was at length con- 
cluded on the fol- 
lowing conditions : 
that Carthage should 
evacuate Sicily and 
the adjoining isl- 
ands ; that she should 
restore tlie Roman 
prisoners without 
ransom, and should 
pay the sum of 3200 
talents within the space of ten years (b.c. 241). All Sicily, with 
the exception of the territory of Hiero, now became a portion of 
the Roman dominions, and Avas formed into a Province, governed 
by a Prtetor, who was sent annually from Rome. 




Plan of ilount Ercta. 



A. Erota, now Monie Pellegrino. 

B. I'anormus, the modern Palermo. 




Coin of Carthage. 



CHAPTER XI. 

EVENTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WAKS. 
B.C. 240-210. 

TwENTT-THREE jears elapsed between the First and Second 
Punic Wars. The power of Carthage, though crippled, -vyas not de- 
stroyed ; and Hamilcar returned home, burning with hatred against 
Rome, and determined to renew the war upon a favorable opportu- 
nity. But a new and terrible danger threatened Carthage upon 
her own soil. The mercenary troops, who had been transported 
from Sicily to Africa at the conclusion of the war, being unable to 
obtain their arrears of pay, rose in open mutiny. Their leaders 
were Spendius, a runaway Campanian slave, and Matho, a Libyan. 
They were quickly joined by the native Libyans, and brought Car- 
thage almost to the brink of destruction. They laid waste the 
whole country with fire and sword, made themselves masters of all 
the towns except the capital, and committed the most frightful 
atrocities. Carthage owed her safety to the genius and abilities 
of Hamilcar. The struggle was fierce and sanguinary, but was at 
length brought to a successful issue, after it had lasted more than 
three years, by the destruction of all the mercenaries. It was call- 
ed the War without Peace, or the Inexpiable War (b.c. 238). 

The Romans availed themselves of the exhausted condition of 
Carthage to demand from her the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, 
and the payment of a farther sum of 1200 talents. The mercenary 
troops in Sardinia, who had also revolted, had applied to Rome for 
assistance ; and the Senate menaced her rival with war unless she 
complied with these unjust demands. Resistance was impossible, 
and Sardinia and Corsica were now formed into a Roman prov- 



78 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XI. 

ince, governed, like Sicily, by a Prator sent annually from Rome 
(B.C. 238). This act of robbery added fresh fuel to the implacable 
animosity of Hamilcar against the grasping Republic. He now 
departed for Spain, where for many years he steadily worked to 
lay the foundation of a new empire, which might not only compen- 
sate for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, but enable him at some 
time to renew hostilities against Rome. 

Rome was now at peace, and in B.C. 235 the Temple of Janus, 
which had remained open since the days of Numa, was closed for 
a second time. Two new tribes were added to the Roman territo- 
ly, thus making their total number thirty-five. 

The Temple of Janus did not long remain closed. The Illyri- 
ans, who dwelt near the head of the Adriatic upon its eastern side, 
were a nation of pirates, who ravaged the coasts of this sea. The 
Senate having sent embassadors to the Illyrian queen, Teiita, to 
complain of these outrages, she not only refused to attend to their 
complaints, but caused one of the embassadors to be murdered. 
War was straightway declared, and a Roman army for the first 
time crossed the Adriatic (b.c. 229). Demetrius of Pharos, an un- 
principled Greek, who was the chief counselor of Teuta, deserted 
his mistress, and surrendered to the Romans the important island 
of Corcyra. Teuta was obliged to yield to the Romans every thing 
they demanded, and promised that the Illyrians should not appear 
south of Lissa with more than two vessels. The suppression of 
piracy in the Adriatic was hailed with gratitude by the Grecian 
states, and deserves notice as the first occasion upon which the Ro- 
mans were brought into immediate contact with Greece. The Con- 
sul Postumius, who had wintered in Illyria, sent envoys to Athens, 
Corinth, and other Grecian cities, to explain what had been done. 
The envoys were received with honor, and thanks were returned 
to Rome (b.c. 228). 

The Romans had scarcely brought this trifling war to an end 
when they became involved in a formidable struggle with their old 
enemies the Gauls. Since the conquest of the Senones in b.c. 289, 
and of the Boii in b. c. 283, the Gauls had remained quiet. The 
Romans had founded the colony of Sena after the subjugation of 
the Senones ; and in b.c. 268 they had still farther strengthened 
their dominion in those parts by founding the colony of Ariminum. 
But the greater part of the soil from which the Senones were eject- 
ed became Public Land. In b.c. 232 the Tribune C. Flaminius 
carried an Agrarian Law to the effect that this portion of the pub- 
lic land, known by the name of the "Gallic Land,"* should be dis- 
tributed among the poorer citizens. This alarmed the Boii, who 
* Gallicus ager. 



B.C. 240-219. EVENTS BETWEEN THE TWO WARS. 79 

dwelt upon the borders of this district. They invoked the assist- 
ance of the powerful tribe of the Insubres, and being joined by 
them, as well as by large bodies of Gauls from beyond the Alps, 
they set out for Rome. 

All Italy was in alarm. The Romans dreaded a repetition of 
the disaster of the Allia. The Sibylline Books being consulted, de- 
clared that Rome must be twdce occupied by a foreign foe ; where- 
upon the Senate ordered that two Gauls and a Grecian woman 
sliould be buried alive in the forum. The allies eagerly offered 
men and supplies to meet a danger which was common to the 
whole peninsula. An army of 150,000 foot and 6000 horse was 
speedily raised. A decisive battle was fought near Telamon in 
Etruria. The Gauls were hemmed in between the armies of the 
two Consuls. As many as 40,000 of their men were slain, and 
10,000 taken prisoners (b.c. 225). The Romans followed up their 
success by invading the country of the Boii, who submitted in the 
following year (b.c. 224). 

In B.C. 223 the Romans for the first time crossed the Po, and 
the Consul C. Elaminius gained a brilliant victory over the Insu- 
bres. The Consuls of the next year, Cn. Cornelius Scipio and M. 
Claudius Marcellus, continued the war against the Insubres, who 
called in to their aid a fresh body of Transalpine Gauls. Marcel- 
lus slew with his own hand Viridomarus, the chief of the Insubrian 
Gauls, and thus gained the third Spolia Ophna. At the same time 
Scipio took Mediolanum (Milan), the chief town of the Insubres. 
This people now submitted without conditions, and the war was 
brought to an end. To secure their recent conquests, the Romans 
determined to plant two powerful Latin colonies at Placentia and 
Cremona, on opposite banks of the Po. These were founded in 
B.C. 218, and consisted each of 6000 men. The Via Flaminia, a 
road constructed by C. Elaminius during his consulship (b.c. 220), 
from Rome to Ariminum, secured the communication with the 
north of Italy. 

While the Romans were engaged in the Gallic wars, the traitor 
Demetrius of Pharos had usurped the chief power in Illyria, and 
had ventured upon many acts of piracy. In b.c. 219 the Consul 
L. uiEmilius Paullus crossed the Adriatic, and soon brought this 
second Illyrian war to an end. Demetrius fled to Philip of Mace- 
don, where we shall shortly afterward see him prompting this king 
to make war against Rome. The greater part of Illjria was re- 
stored to the native chiefs ; but the Romans retained possession of 
Corcyra, and of the important towns of ApoUonia and Oricum on 
the coast. 

Meanwhile Hamilcar had been steadily pursuing his conquests 



80 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XI. 

in Spain. The subjugation of this country was only a means to 
an end. His great object, as already stated, was to obtain the 
means of attacking, and, if possible, crushing that hated rival who 
had robbed his country of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. His im- 
placable animosity against Rome is shown by the well-known tale 
that, when he crossed over to Spain in b.c. 235, taking with him 
his son Hannibal, then only nine years old, he made him swear at 
the altar eternal hostility to Rome. During the eight years that 
Plamilcar continued in Spain he carried the Carthaginian arms into 
the heart of the country. While he conquered several" states in 
Avar, he gained over others by negotiation, and availed himself of 
their services as allies or mercenaries. He fell in battle in B.C. 
229, and was succeeded in the command by his son-in-law Hasdru- 
bal. His plans were ably carried out by his successor. The con- 
ciliatory manners of Hasdrubal gained him the affections of the 
Spaniards ; and he consolidated the Carthaginian empire in Spain 
by the foundation of New Carthage, now Cartagena, in a situation 
admirably chosen on account of its excellent harbor and easy com- 
munication with Africa, as well as from its proximity to the silver 
mines, which supplied him with the means of paying his troops. 
The conduct of his warlike enterprises was intrusted to the youth- 
ful Hannibal, who had been trained in arms under the eye of his 
father, and who already displayed that ability for war which made 
him one of the most celebrated generals in ancient or modern 
times. The successes of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal conld not fail to 
attract the notice of the Romans, and in b.c. 227 they concluded a 
treaty with the latter, by which the River Iberus (Ebro) was fixed 
as the northern boundary of the Carthaginian empire in Spain. 

Hasdrubal was assassinated in b.c. 221 by a slave whose master 
he had put to death. Hannibal had now acquired such a remark- 
able ascendency over the army that the soldiers unanimously pro- 
claimed him commander-in-chief, and the government at Carthage 
hastened to ratify an appointment which they had not, in fact, the 
power to prevent. Hannibal was at this time in the 26th year of 
his age. There can be no doubt that he already looked forward to 
the invasion and conquest of Italy as the goal of his ambition ; but 
it was necessary for him first to complete the work which had been 
so ably begun by his two predecessors, and to establish the Cartha- 
ginian power as firmly as possible in Spain. This he accomplish- 
ed in two campaigns, in the course of which he brought all the na- 
tions south of the Iberus into subjection to Carthage. 

Early in the spring of b.c. 219 he proceeded to lay siege to Sa- 
guntum, a city of Greek origin, founded by the Zacynthians. 
Though situated to the south of the Iberus, and therefore not in- 



B.C. 249-219. EVENTS BETWEEN THE TWO WARS. 81 

eluded under the protection of the treaty between Hasdrubal and 
the Romans, Saguntiim had concluded an alliance with the latter 
people. There could be little doubt, therefore, that an attack 
upon this city would inevitably bring on a war with Rome ; but for 
this Hannibal was prepared, or, rather, it was unquestionably his 
real object. The immediate pretext of his invasion was the same 
of which the Romans so often availed themselves — some injury in- 
flicted by the Saguntines upon one of the neighboring tribes, who 
invoked the assistance of Hannibal. But the resistance of the city 
was long and desperate, and it was not till after a siege of nearly 
eight months that he made himself master of the place. During 
all this period the Romans sent no assistance to their allies. 
They had, indeed, as soon as they heard of the siege, dispatched 
embassadors to Hannibal, but he referred them for an answer to 
the government at home, and they could obtain no satisfaction 
from the Carthaginians, in whose councils the war-party had now 
a decided predominance. A second embassy was sent, after the 
fall of Saguntum, to demand the surrender of Hannibal, in atone- 
ment for the breach of the treaty. After much discussion, Q. Fa- 
bius, one of the Roman embassadors, holding up a fold of his toga, 
said, "I carry here peace and war; choose ye which ye Avill." 
"Give us which you will," was the reply. " Then take war," said 
Fabius, letting fall his toga. "We accept the gift," cried the Sen- 
ators of Carthage. Thus commenced the Second Punic War. 




Coin of Hiero. 
F 




Like Ira^imeDxi'i 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE SECOND PUNIC WAR : FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE 
OF CANN^. B.C. 218-216. 

The Second Punic War was not so much a contest between the 
powers of two great nations — between Carthage and Rome — as be- 
tween the individual genius of Hannibal on one hand, and the 
combined energies of the Roman people on the other. The posi- 
tion of Hannibal was indeed very peculiar. His command in Spain, 
and the powerful army there, which was entirely at his own dispo- 
sal, rendered him in great measure independent of the government 
at Carthage, and the latter seemed disposed to devolve all respon- 
sibilty upon him. Even now they did little themselves to prepare 
for the impending contest. All was left to Hannibal, who, after 
the conquest of Saguntum, had returned once more to New Car- 
thage for the wintei', and was there actively engaged in preparations 
for transporting the scene of war in the ensuing campaign from 
Spain into Italy. At the same time he did not neglect to provide 
for the defense of Spain and Africa during his absence. In the 



B.C. 218-216. SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD. 83 

former country he placed his brother Hasdrubal, with a considera- 
ble army, great part of which was composed of Africans, while he 
sent over a large body of Spanish troops to contribute to the de- 
fense of Africa, and even of Carthage itself. 

All his preparations being now completed, Hannibal quitted his 
winter quarters at New Carthage in the spring of b.c. 218, and 
crossed the Iberus with an army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse. 
The tribes between that river and the Pyrenees offered at first a 
vigorous resistance, and, though they were quickly subdued, Han- 
nibal thought it necessary to leave behind him a force of 11,000 
men under Hanno to maintain this newly-acquired province. His 
forces were farther thinned by desertion during the passage of the 
Pyrenees, which obliged him to send home a large body of his Span- 
ish troops. With a greatly diminished army, but one on which he 
could securely rely, he now continued his march from the foot of 
the Pyrenees to the Rhone without meeting with any opposition ; 
for the Gaulish tribes through which he passed were favorably dis- 
posed to him, or had been previously gained over by his enemies. 

The Consul P. Cornelius Scipio had been ordered to proceed to 
Spain, but various causes had detained him in Italy, and upon land- 
ing at Massilia (Marseilles) he found that Hannibal was already 
advancing toward the Rhone. Meantime the Carthaginian gener- 
al eifected his passage across the river, notwithstanding the opposi- 
tion of the Gauls ; and when Scipio marched up the left bank of 
the river he found that Hannibal had advanced into the interior of 
Gaul, and was already three days in advance of him. Despairing, 
therefore, of overtaking Hannibal, he determined to sail back to 
Italy and await him in Cisalpine Gaul ; but as the Republic had al- 
ready an army in that province, he sent the greater part of his own 
forces into Spain under the command of his brother Cn. Scipio. 
This prudent step probably saved Rome ; for if the Carthaginians 
had maintained the undisputed mastery of Spain, they might have 
concentrated all their efforts to support Hannibal in Italy, and have 
sent him such strong re-enforcements after the battle of Cannce as 
M'ould have compelled Rome to submit. 

Hannibal, after crossing the Rhone, continued his march up the 
left bank of the river as far as its confluence with the Isere. Here 
he interposed in a dispute between two rival chiefs of the Allo- 
broges, and, by lending his aid to establish one of them firmly on 
the throne, secured tlie co-operation of an efficient ally, who great- 
ly facilitated his farther progress. But in his passage across the 
Alps he was attacked by the barbarians, and as he struggled through 
the narrow and dangerous defiles the enemy destroyed numbers of 
his men. It was some davs before he reached the summit of the 



84 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XII. 

pass. Thenceforth he suffered but little from hostile attacks, but 
the descent was difficult and dangerous. The natural difficulties 
of the road, enhanced by the lateness of the season (the beginning 
of October, at which time the snows had already commenced in the 
high Alps), caused him almost as much loss as the opposition of 
the barbarians on the other side of the mountains. So heavy were 
his losses from these combined causes, that, when he at length 
emerged from the valley of Aosta into the plains of the Po and en- 
camped in the friendly country of the Insubres, he had with him 
no more than 20,000 foot and 6000 horse.* Such were the forces 
with which he descended into Italy to attempt the overthrow of a 
power that a few years before was able to muster a disposable force 
of above 700,000 fighting men. 

Five months had been employed in the march from New Carthage 
to the plains of Italy, of which the actual passage of the Alps had 
occupied fifteen days. Hannibal's first care was now to recruit the 
strength of his troops, exhausted by the hardships and fatigues they 
had undergone. After a short interval of repose, he turned his 
arms against the Taurinians (a tribe bordering on, and hostile to, 
the Insubrians, whom he quickly reduced, and took their principal 
city (Turin). The news of the approach of P. Scipio next obliged 
him to turn his attention toward a more formidable enemy. In the 
first action, which took place in the plains westward of the Ticjnus, 
the cavalry and light-armed troops of the two armies were alone 
engaged, and the superiority of Hannibal's Numidian horse at once 
decided the combat in his favor. The Romans were completely 
routed, and Scipio himself severely wounded ; in consequence of 
Avhich he hastened to retreat beyond the Ticinus and the Po, un- 
der the walls of Placentia. Hannibal crossed the Po higher up, 
and, advancing to Placentia, offered battle to Scipio ; but the lat- 
ter declined the combat, and withdrew to the hills on the left bank 
of the Trebia. Here he was soon after joined by the other Consul, 
Ti. Sempronius Longus, who had hastened from Ariminum to his 
support. Their combined armies were greatly superior to that of 
the Carthaginians, and Sempronius was eager to bring on a general 
battle, of which Hannibal, on his side, was not less desirous, not- 
withstanding the great inferiority of his force. The result was de- 
cisive ; the Romans were completely defeated, with heavy loss ; 
and the remains of their shattered army, together with the two 
Consuls, took refuge within the walls of Placentia. The battles 
of the Ticinus and Trebia had been fought in December, and the 

* The pass of the Alps which Hannibal crossed was probably the Graian Alps, 
or Little St. Bernard. See note *•' On the Passage of Hannibal across the Alps" 
at the end of this chapter. 



B.C. 218-216. SECOND PUNIC WAR : FIRST PERIOD. 85 




86 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XII. 

winter had already begun with unusual severity, so that Hannibal's 
troops suffered severely from cold, and all his elephants perished 
except one. But his victory had caused all the wavering tribes of 
the Gauls to declare in his favor, and he was now able to take up 
his winter quarters in security, and to levy fresh troops among the 
Gauls while he awaited the approach of spring. 

As soon as the season permitted the renewal of military oper- 
ations (B.C. 217), Hannibal entered the country of the Ligurian 
tribes, who had lately declared in his favor, and descended by the 
valley of the Macra into the mai'shes on the banks of the Arno. 
He had apparently chosen this route in order to avoid the Roman 
armies, which guarded the more obvious passes of the Apennines ; 
but the hardships and difficulties which he encountered in strug- 
gling through the marshes were immense ; great numbers of his 
horses and beasts of burden perished, and he himself lost the sight 
of one eye by a violent attack of ophthalmia. At length, howev- 
er, he reached FiBsulse in safety, and was able to allow his troops a 
short interval of repose. 

The Consuls for this year were Cn. Servilius and C. Flaminius. 
The latter was the author of the celebrated Agrarian Law which 
occasioned the Gallic War, and in his first consulship he had gain- 
ed a great victory over the Insubrian Gauls (see p. 79). He had 
been raised to his second consulship by popular favor, in spite of 
the opposition of the Senate ; and he hurried from Rome before 
the Ides of March,* lest the Senate might throw any obstacle in 
the way of his entering upon his consiilship. He was a man of 
great energy, but headstrong and reckless. When Hannibal ar- 
rived at Fjesulce, Flaminius was with his army at Arretium. It 
was always the object of Hannibal to bring the Roman command- 
ers to a battle, and therefore, in moving from Fsesulas, he passed by 
the Roman general, and advanced toward Perugia, laying waste the 
fertile country on his line of march. Flaminius immediately broke 
up his camp, and, following the traces of Hannibal, fell into the 
snare which was prepared for him. His army was attacked under 
the most disadvantageous circumstances, where it was hemmed in 
between rocky heights, jjreviously occupied by the enemy, and the 
Lake of Trasimenus. Its destruction was almost complete. Thou- 
sands fell by the sword, among whom was the Consul himself; 
thousands more perished in the lake, and no less than 15,000 pris- 
oners fell into the hands of Hannibal, who on his side is said to 
have lost only 1500 men. Hannibal's treatment of the captives on 
this occasion, as well as after the battle of the Trebia, was marked 

• At this time the Consuls entered upon their office on the Ides of March. It 
was not till b.c. 153 that the consulship commenced on the Kalends of January. 



B.C. 218-216. SECOKD PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD. 87 

by the same policy on which he afterward uniformly acted ; the 
Roman citizens alone were retained as prisoners, while their Ital- 
ian allies were dismissed without ransom to their respective homes. 
By this means he hoped to excite the nations of Italy against their 
Roman masters, and to place himself in the position of the leader 
of a national movement rather than that of a foreign invader. It 
was probably in order to give time for this feeling to display itself 
that he did not, after so decisive a victory, push on toward Rome 
itself; but, after an unsuccessful attempt upon the Roman colony 
of Spoletiura, he turned aside through the Apennines into Pice- 
num, and thence into the northern part of Apulia. Here he spent 
a great part of the summer, and was able effectually to refresh his 
troops, who had suffered much from the hardships of their previous 
marches; but no symptoms appeared of the insurrections he had 
looked for among the Italians. 

Meantime the Romans had collected a fresh army, which they 
placed under the command of Q. Fabius Maximus, who had been 
elected Dictator by the Comitia of the Centuries. Fabius foiTned 
a different plan for the campaign. lie determined to keep the 
heights, and not to risk a battle, but at the same time to watch the 
Carthaginian army, cut off its supplies, and harass and annoy it in 
every possible way. From pursuing this policy he received the sur- 
name of Cunctator, or the Lingerer. 

Hannibal now recrossed the Apennines, descended into the rich 
plains of Campania, and laid waste, without opposition, that fertile 
territory. But he was unable either to make himself master of any 
of the towns, or to draw the wary Fabius to a battle. The Roman 
general contented himself with occupying the mountain passes 
leading from Samnium into Campania, by which Hannibal must of 
necessity retreat, and believed that he had caught him, as it were, 
in a trap ; but Hannibal eluded his vigilance by an ingenious strat- 
agem, passed the defiles of the Apennines without loss, and estab- 
lished himself in the plains of Apulia, where he collected supplies 
from all sides, in order to prepare for the winter. Meantime the 
Romans, having become impatient at the inactivity of Fabius, raised 
Minucius, the Master of the Horse, to an equality in command with 
Fabius. His rashness very nearly gave Hannibal the opportunity, 
for which he was ever on the watch, to crush the Roman army by 
a decisive blow ; but Fabius was able to save his colleague fi'om de- 
struction ; and Hannibal, after obtaining only a partial advantage, 
took up his winter quarters at the small town of Geronium. Mi- 
nucius acknowledged his error, and resumed his post of Master of 
the Horse. 

During the winter the Romans made preparations for bringing 



88 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XII. 

an unusually large force into the field. The people thought that 
it needed only a man of energy and decision at the head of an 
overwhelming force to bring the war to a close. They therefore 
raised to the consulship C. Terentius Varro, said to have been the 
son of a butcher, Avho had been for some time regarded as the 
champion of the popular party. The Senate regarded this election 
with dismay, as Varro possessed no military experience ; and they 
therefore persuaded the people to appoint as his colleague L. 
^milius Paullus, who had distinguished himself by the way in 
which he had conducted the Illyrian war during his consulship. 

Hannibal remained at Geronium until late in the spring (b.c. 
216), when, compelled to move by the want of provisions, he sur- 
prised the Roman magazines at Cannas, a small town of Apulia, 
and established his head-quarters there until the harvest could be 
got in. Meanwhile the two Roman Consuls arrived at the head of 
an array of little less than 90,000 men. To this mighty host Han- 
nibal gave battle in the plains on the right bank of the Aufidus, 
just below the town of Cannse. We have no statement of the num- 
bers of his army, but it is certain that it must have been greatly in- 
ferior to that of the enemy ; notwithstanding which, the excellence 
of his cavalry, and the disciplined valor of his African and Spanish 
infantry, gave him the most decisive victory. The immense army 
of the Romans was not only defeated, but annihilated, and be- 
tween forty and fifty thousand men are said to have fallen in the 
field, among whom was the Consul ^milius Paullus, both the Con- 
suls of the preceding year, the late Master of the Horse, Minucius, 
above eighty senators, and a multitude of the wealthy knights who 
composed the Roman cavalry. The other Consul, Varro, escaped 
with a few horsemen to Venusia, and a small band of resolute men 
forced their way from the Roman camp to Canusium ; all the rest 
were killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. Hannibal has been gen- 
erally blamed for not following up his advantage at once, after so 
decisive a victory, by an immediate advance upon Rome itself— a 
measure which was strongly urged upon him by Maharbal. < ' Only 
send me on with the cavalry," said this officer, "and within five 
days thou shalt sup in the Capitol." Whatever may be the mo- 
tives that deterred Hannibal from marching upon Rome, we can 
not but be surprised at his apparent inactivity after the battle. He 
probably expected that so brilliant a success would immediately 
produce a general rising among the nations of Italy, and remained 
for a time quietly in Apulia, until they should have had time to 
declare themselves. Nor were his hopes disappointed ; the Hirpin- 
ians, all the Samnites (except the Pentrian tribe), and almost all 
the Apulians, Lucanians, and Bruttians, declared in favor of Car- 



B.C. 218-216. SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD. 89 

thage. But, though the whole of the south of Italy was thus appa- 
rently lost to the Romans, yet the effect of this insurrection was 
not so decisive as it would at first appear ; for the Latin colonies, 
which still, without exception, remained faithful, gave the Romans 
a powerful hold upon the revolted provinces ; and the Greek cities 
on the coast, though mostly disposed to join the Carthaginians, 
were restrained by the presence of Roman garrisons. Hence it be- 
came necessary to support the insurrection in the different parts 
of Italy with a Carthaginian force. Hannibal marched first into 



WonlmeUan y'^. 
o 




Route of Hannibal. (See p. 90.) 

Samnium, and from thence into Campania, where he obtained pos- 
session of the important city of Capua, the gates of which were 
opened to him by the popular party. Here he established his 
army in winter quarters. Thus ends the first period of the war, in 
which Hannibal had met with iminterrupted success. Three great 
victories in three years, followed by the revolt of a city scarcely 
inferior to Rome itself in importance, seemed to promise a speedy 
termination of the war. 



90 



HISTOKY OF ROME. 



Chap. XII. 



NOTE ON HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE ACROSS THE ALPS. 

(See p. 84.) 



The narrative in the text is taken 
from that of the Greek historian Polyb- 
ius, wliich is certainly by far the most 
trustworthy that has descended to us ; 
but that author has nowhere clearly 
stated by which of the passes across 
the Alps Hannibal effected his march; 
and this question has given rise to 
much controversy both in ancient and 
modern times. Into this discussion 
our limits will not allow us to enter, 
but the following may be briefly stated 
as the general results: 1. That after 
a careful examination of the text of 
Polybius, and comparison of the dif- 
ferent localities, his narrative will be 
found, on the whole, to agree best with 
the supposition that Hannibal crossed 
the Graian Alps, or Little St. Bernard ; 
though it can not be denied that there 
are some difficulties attending this 
line, especially in regard to the descent 
into Italy. 2. That Cselius Antipater 
certainly represented him as taking 
this route (Liv., xxi., 3S) ; and as he 
is known to have followed the Greek 
history of Silenus, who is said to have 
accompanied Hannibal in many of his 
campaigns, his authority is of the 
greatest weight. 3. That Livy and 
Strabo, on the contrary, both suppose 
him to have crossed the Cottian Alps, 
or Mont Genevre. But the main ar- 
gument that appears to have weighed 
with Livy, as it has done with several 
modern writers on the subject, is the 
assumption that Hannibal descended 
in the first instance into the country 
of the Taurinians, which is opposed 



to the direct testimony of Polybius, 
who says expressly that he descended 
among the Insubrians, and fnihs'quent- 
ly mentions his attack on the Taurin- 
ians. 4. That, as according to Livy 
himself (xxi., 29), the Gaulish emissa- 
ries who acted as Hannibal's guides 
were Boians, it was natural that these 
should conduct him by the passage 
that led directly into the tenltory of 
their allies and brothers-in-arms, the 
Insubrians, rather than into that of 
the Taurinians, a Ligurian tribe, who 
were at this very time in a state of 
hostility with the Insubrians. And 
this remark will serve to explain Avhy 
Hannibal chose apparently a longer 
route, instead of the more direct one 
of Mont Genevre. Lastly, it is remark- 
able that Polybius, though he censures 
the exaggerations and absurdities with 
which earlier writers had encumbered 
their narrative, does not intimate that 
any doubt was entertained as to the 
line of march ; and Pompey, in a letter 
to the Senate, written in T3 b.c., al- 
ludes to the route of Hannibal across 
the Alps as something well known. 
Hence it appears clear that the passage 
by which he crossed them must have 
been one of those frequented in subse- 
quent times by the Romans. This argu- 
ment seems decisive against the claims 
of Mont Cenis, which have been advo- 
cated by some modern writers, that pass 
having apparently never been used till 

the Middle Ages See Diet, of Greek 

and Roman Biography, vol. ii., p. 334, 
335. 




Plain of Cauuse. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 



SECOND PUNIC WAR : SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA 
TO THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. B.C. 215-207. 

Capua was celebrated for its wealth and luxury, and the ener- 
vating effect which these produced upon the army of Hannibal be- 
came a favorite theme of rhetorical exaggeration in later {)ges. 
The futility of such declamations is sufficiently shov.n by the sim- 
ple fact that the superiority of that army in the field remained as 
decided as ever. Still it may be truly said that the winter spent 
at Capua (b.c. 216-215) was in great measure the turning-point of 
Hannibal's fortune, and from this time the war assumed an altered 
character. The experiment of what he could effect with his single 
army had now been fully tried, and, notwithstanding all his victo- 
ries, it had decidedly failed ; for Eome was still unsubdued, and 
still provided with the means of maintaining a protracted contest. 
But Hannibal had not relied on his own forces alone, and he now 
found himself, apparently at least, in a condition to commence the 
execution of his long-cherished plan — that of arming Italy itself 
against the Romans, and crushing the ruling power by means of 
her own subjects. It was to this object that his attention was 
henceforth mainly directed. From this time, also, the Romans 



92 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XIII. 

changed their plan of operations, and, instead of opposing to Han- 
nibal one great army in the field, they hemmed in his movements 
on all sides, guarded all the most important towns with strong 
garrisons, and kept up an army in every province of Italy to thwart 
the operations of his lieutenants and cheek the rising disposition to 
revolt. It is impossible here to follow in detail the complicated 
operations of the subsequent campaigns, during which Hannibal 
himself frequently traversed Italy in all directions, appearing sud- 
denly whex-ever his presence was called for, and astonishing and 
often baffling the enemy by the rapidity of his marches. All that 
we can do is to notice very briefly the leading events which distin- 
guished each successive campaign. 

The campaign of B.C. 215 was not marked by any decisive events. 
The Consuls were Q. Fabius Maximus (whose plan of conducting 
the war had been fully vindicated by the terrible defeat of Cannse) 
and Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. With the advance of spring 
Hannibal took up his camp on Mount Tifata, where, while await- 
ing the arrival of re-enforcements from Carthage, he Avas at hand 
to support his partisans in Campania and oppose the Roman gen- 
erals in that province. But his attempts on Cumee and Neapolis 
were foiled, and even after he had been joined by a force from 
Carthage (very inferior, however, to what he had expected), he sus- 
tained a repulse before Nola, which was magnified by the Romans 
into a defeat. As the winter approached he withdrew into Apu- 
lia, and took up his quarters in the plains around Arpi. But oth- 
er prospects were already opening before him. In his camp on 
Tifata he had received embassies from Philip, king of Macedon, and 
Hieronymus of Syracuse, both of which he had eagerly welcomed, 
and thus sowed the seeds of two fresh wars, and raised up two 
formidable enemies against the Roman power. 

These two collateral wars in some degree drew ofi" the attention 
of both parties from that in Italy itself; yet the Romans still op- 
posed to the Carthaginian general a chain of armies which fetter- 
ed all his operations ; and though Hannibal was ever on the watch 
for the opportunity of striking a blow, the campaign of B.C. 214 
was still less decisive than that of the preceding year. Fabius was 
again elected Consul, and Marcellus was appointed his colleague. 
Early in the summer Hannibal advanced from Apulia to his former 
station on Mount Tifata to watch over the safety of Capua ; from 
thence he had descended to the Lake Avernus, in hopes of mak- 
ing himself master of Puteoli, when a prospect was held out to him 
of surprising the important city of Tarentum. Thither he hasten- 
ed by forced marches, but arrived too late ; Tarentum had been 
secured by a Roman force. After this his operations were of 



B.C. 2 15-207. SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD. 93 

little importance, until he again took up his winter quarters in 
Apulia. 

During the following summer (b.c. 213), while all eyes were 
turned toward the war in Sicily, Hannibal remained almost wholly 
inactive in the neighborhood of Tarentum, the hopes he still enter- 
tained of making himself master of that important city rendering 
him unwilling to quit that quarter of Italy. Before the close of 
the ensuing winter he was rewarded with the long-looked-for prize, 
and Tarentum was betrayed into his hands by two of its citizens. 
The advantage, however, was incomplete, for a Roman garrison 
still held possession of the citadel, from which he was unable to 
dislodge them. The next year (b.c. 212) was marked by import- 
ant events in Sicily and Spain, to which we must now direct our 
attention. 

Hiero, so long the faithful ally of Rome, died shortly after the 
battle of Cannae (b.c. 216), and was succeeded by his grandson 
Hieronymus, a vain youth, who abandoned the alliance of Rome 
for that of Carthage. But he was assassinated after a reign of fif- 
teen months, and a republican form of government was established 
in Syracuse. A contest ensued between the Roman and Cartha- 
ginian parties in Syracuse, but the former ultimately prevailed, 
.and Epicydes and Hippocrates, two brothers whom Hannibal had 
sent to Syracuse to espouse his interests, had to quit the city, and 
took refuge at Leontini. Such was the state of aifairs when the 
Consul Marcellus arrived in Sicily (b.c. 214). He forthwith march- 
ed against Leontini, which Epicydes and Hippocrates defended 
with a considerable force. He took the city by storm, and, though 
he spared the inhabitants, executed in cold blood 2000 Roman de- 
serters whom he found among the troops that had formed the gar- 
rison. This sanguinary act at once alienated the minds of the Si- 
cilians, and alarmed the mercenary troops in the sei-vice of Syra- 
cuse. The latter immediately joined Hippocrates and Epicydes, 
who had made their escape to Herbessus ; the gates of Syracuse 
were opened to them by their partisans within the walls, and the 
party hostile to Rome was thus established in the undisputed 
command of that city. Marcellus now appeared before Syracuse 
at the head of his army, and, after a fruitless summons to the in- 
habitants, proceeded to lay siege to the city both by sea and land. 
His attacks were vigorous and unremitting, and were directed es- 
pecially against the quarter of Achradina* from the side of the sea; 
but, though he brought many powerful military engines against the 
walls, these were rendered wholly unavailing by the superior skill 
and science of Archimedes, which were employed on the side of 
* See tlie map in the "Smaller History of Greece," p. 117. 



94 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XIII. 

the besieged. All the efforts of the assailants were baffled ; and 
the Roman soldiers were inspired with so great a dread of Ar- 
chimedes and his engines,* that Marcellus was compelled to give 
up all hopes of carrying the city by open force, and to turn the 
siege into a blockade. The siege was prolonged far on into the 
summer of B.C. 212, nor did there appear any prospect of its term- 
ination, as the communications of the besieged by sea were al- 
most entirely open. In this state of things Marcellus fortunately 
discovered a part of the walls more accessible than the rest ; and, 
having prepared scaling ladders, effected an entrance at this point 
during the night which followed a great festival, and thus made 
himself master of Epipola3. The two quarters called Tyche and 
Neapolis were now at his mercy, and were given up to plunder; 
but Epicydes still held the island-citadel and the important quar- 
ter of Achradina, which formed two separate and strong fortresses. 
Marcellus, however, made himself master of the fort of Euryalus, 
and had closely invested Achradina, Avhen the Carthaginian army 
under Himilco and Hippocrates advanced to the relief of the city. 
Their efforts were, however, in vain ; all their attacks on the camp 
of Marcellus were repulsed, and they were unable to effect a junc- 
tion with Epicydes and the Syracusan garrison. The unhealthi- 
ness of the country soon gave rise to a pestilence which carried off 
both the Carthaginian generals and led to the entire break-up of 
the array. Shortly afterward the treachery of a leader of Spanish 
mercenaries in the Syracusan service opened to Marcellus the gates 
of Achradina, and in the general attack that ensued he made him- 
self master of the island of Ortygia also. The city Avas given uj) 
to plunder, and Archimedes was slain by a Roman soldier, being so 
intent upon a mathematical problem at the time that he did not 
answer a question that was asked him. He was deeply regretted 
by Marcellus, who gave orders for his burial, and befriended his 
surviving relatives.! 

The booty found in the captured city was immense : besides the 
money in the royal treasury, which was set apart for the coffers of 
the state, Marcellus carried off many of the works of art with which 
the city had been adorned, to grace his own triumph and the tem- 
ples at Rome. This was the first instance of a practice which after- 
ward became so general ; and it gave great offense not only to the 
Greeks of Sicily, but to a large party at Rome itself. 

* The stoiy that Archimedes set the Roman ships on fire by the reflected rays 
of the sun is probably a fiction, though later writers give an account of this burn- 
ing mirror. 

t Upon his tomb was placed the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder. 
When Cicero was Quisstor in Sicily (b.o. 75), he found his tomb near one of the 
gates of the city, almost hid among briers, and forgotten by the Syracusans. 



B.C. 215-207. SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD. 95 

The fall of Syracuse was followed, though not immediately, by 
the subjugation of the whole island by the Romans ; but these suc- 
cesses were counterbalanced by the defeat and death of the two 
Scipios in Spain. We have already seen that P. Scipio, when he 
landed at Massilia and found himself unable to overtake Hannibal 
in Gaul, sent his brother Cneius with the army into Spain, while 
he himself returned to Italy. In the following year (b.c. 217) 
Publius himself crossed over into Spain, where he found that his 
brothel had already obtained a iirm footing. They continued in 
Spain for several years, during which they gained many victories, 
and prevented Hasdinibal from marching into Italy to support his 
victorious brother. When Hasdrubal was recalled to Africa to 
oppose Syphax, one of the Numidian kings, who was carrying on 
war against Carthage, the Scipios availed themselves of his absence 
to strengthen their power still farther. They gained over new 
tribes to the Roman cause, took 20,000 Celtiberians into their pay, 
and felt themselves so strong in b.c. 212 that they resolved to 
cross the Iberus and to make a vigorous effort to drive the Cartha- 
ginians out of Spain. They accordingly divided their forces ; but 
the result was fatal. Publius was destroyed, with the greater part 
of his troops ; and Cneius was also defeated, aiid fell in battle, 
twenty-nine days after the death of his brother. These victories 
seemed to establish the superiority of Carthage in Spain, and open 
the way for Hasdrubal to join his brother in Italy. 

In Italy (b.c. 212) the two Consuls Appius Claudius and Q.Pul- 
vius began to draw together their forces for the purpose of besieg- 
ing Capua. Hannibal advanced to relieve it, and compelled the 
Consuls to withdraw ; but he was unable to force either of them 
to fight. Shortly afterward he returned again to the south to urge 
on the siege of the citadel of Tarentum, Avhich still held out ; and 
he spent the winter and the whole of the ensuing spring (b.c. 211) 
in its immediate neighborhood. But during his absence the Con- 
suls had renewed the siege of Capua, and prosecuted it with such 
activity, that they had succeeded in surrounding the city with a 
double line of intrench ments. The pressing danger once more sum- 
moned Hannibal to its relief. He accordingly presented himself 
before the Roman camp, and attacked their lines from without, 
while the garrison co-operated with him by a vigorous sally from 
the walls. Both attacks were however repulsed, and Hannibal, 
foiled in his attempt to raise the siege by direct means, determined 
on the bold manoeuvre of marching directly upon Rome itself, in 
hopes of thus compelling the Consuls to abandon their designs 
upon Capua, in order to provide for the defense of the city. But 
this daring scheme was again frustrated; the appearance of Hanni- 



9G HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. Xin. 

bal before the gates of Rome for a moment struck terror through 
the city ; but a considerable body of troops was at the time within 
the walls ; and the Consul Fulvius, as soon as he heard of Hanni- 
bal's march, hastened, with a portion of the besieging army, from 
Capua, while he still left with the other Consul a force amply suf- 
ficient to carry on the siege. Hannibal was thus disappointed in 
the main object of his advance, and he had no means of effecting 
any thing against Rome itself, where Fulvius and Fabius confined 
themselves strictly to the defensive, allowing him to ravage the 
whole country without opposition, up to the very walls of Rome. 
Nothing therefore remained for him but to retreat, and he accord- 
ingly recrossed the Anio, and maixhed slowly and sullenly through 
the land of the Sabines and Samnites, ravaging the country which 
he traversed. From thence he retired to the Bruttii, leaving Capua 
to its fate. The city soon after surrendered to the Romans. Its 
punishment was terrible. All the leaders of the insurrection were 
beheaded ; the chief men were imprisoned ; and the rest of the 
people were sold. The city and its teri'itory were confiscated, and 
became part of the Roman domain. 

The commencement of the next season (b.c. 210) was marked 
by the fall of Salapia, which was betrayed by the inhabitants to 
Marcellus ; but this loss was soon avenged by the total defeat and 
destruction of the army of the Proconsul Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea. 
The Consul Marcellus, on his part, carefully avoided an action for 
the rest of the campaign, while he harassed his opponent by every 
possible means. Thus the rest of that summer too wore away 
without any important results. But this state of comparative in- 
activity was necessarily injurious to the cause of Hannibal ; the 
nations of Italy that had espoused that cause when triumphant 
now began to waver in their attachment ; and in the course of the 
following summer (n.c. 209) the Samnites and Lucanians submit- 
ted to Rome, and were admitted to favorable terms. A still more 
disastrous blow to the Carthaginian caiise was the loss of Taren- 
tum, which was betrayed into the hands of Fabius, as it had been 
into those of Hannibal. In vain did the latter seek to draAv the 
Roman general into a snare; the wary Fabius eluded his toils. 
The recovery of Tarentum was the last exploit in the military life 
of the aged Fabius, and was a noble completion to his long list of 
achievements. From the time of the battle of Cannai he had di- 
rected almost exclusively the councils of his country, and his policy 
had been ])re-eminently successful ; but the times now demanded 
bolder measures, and something else was necessary than the cau- 
tion of the Lingerer to bring the war to a close. 

After the fall of Tarentum Hannibal still traversed the open 



B.C. 215-207. SECOND PUNIC WAK: SECOND PERIOD. 97 

country unopposed, and laid waste the territories of his enemies. 
Yet we can not suppose that he any longer looked for ultimate suc- 
cess from any efforts of his own; his object was doubtless now only 
to maintain his ground in the south until his brother Hasdrubal 
should appear in the north of Italy, an event to which he had long 
anxiously looked forward. Yet the following summer (b.c. 208) 
was marked by some brilliant achievements. The two Consuls, 
Crispinus and Marcellus, who were opposed to Hannibal in Luca- 
nia, allowed themselves to be led into an ambush, in which Mar- 
cellus was killed, and Crispinus mortally wounded. Marcellus was 
one of the ablest of the Roman generals. Hannibal displayed a 
generous sympathy for his fate, and caused due honors to be paid 
to his remains. 

The following year (b.c. 207) decided the issue of the war in 
Italy. The war in Spain during the last few years had been car- 
ried on with brilliant success by the young P. Scipio, of whose ex- 
ploits we shall speak presently. But in b.c. 208, Hasdrubal, leav- 
ing the two other Carthaginian generals to make head against 
Scipio, resolved to set out for Italy to the assistance of his brother. 
As Scipio was in undisputed possession of the province north of 
the Iberus, and had secured the passes of the Pyrenees on that 
side, Hasdrubal crossed these mountains near their western ex- 
tremity, and plunged into the heart of Gaul. After spending a 
winter in that country, he prepared to cross the Alps in the spring 
of B.C. 207, and to descend into Italy. The two Consuls for this 
year were C. Claudius Nero and M. Livius. Nero marched into 
Southern Italy to keep a watch upon Hannibal ; Livius took up 
his quarters at Ariminum to oppose Hasdrubal. The latter ex- 
perienced little loss or difficulty in crossing the Alps. The season 
of the year was favorable, and the Gauls were friendly to his cause. 
But instead of pushing on at once into the heart of Italy, he allow- 
ed himself to be engaged in the siege of Placentia, and lost much 
precious time in fruitless efforts to reduce that colony. When at 
length he abandoned the enterprise, he sent messengers to Hanni- 
bal to apprize him of his movements, and concert measures for 
their meeting in Umbria. But his dispatches fell into the hands 
of the Consul Nero, who formed the bold resolution of instantly 
marching with a picked body of 7000 men to join his colleague, 
and fall upon Hasdrubal with their united forces before Hannibal 
could receive any information of his brother's movements. Nero 
executed his design with equal secrecy and rapidity. Hannibal 
knew nothing of his departure, and in a week's time Nero marched 
2^0 miles to Sena, where his colleague was encamped in presence 
of Hasdrubal, He entered the camp of Livius in the night, that 

G 



98 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XIII. 

his arrival might not be known to the Carthaginians. After a 
day's rest the two Consuls proceeded to offer battle ; but Hasdru- 
bal, perceiving the augmented numbers of the Romans, and hear- 
ing the trumpet sound twice, felt convinced that the Consuls had 
united their forces, and that his brother had been defeated. He 
therefore declined the combat, and in the following night com- 
menced his retreat toward Ariminum. The Romans pursued him, 
and he found himself compelled to give them battle on the right 
bank of the Metaurus. On this occasion Hasdrubal displayed all 
the qualities of a consummate general ; but his forces were great- 
ly inferior to those of the enemy, and his Gaulish auxiliaries were 
of little service. The gallant resistance of the Spanish and Ligu- 
rian troops is attested by the heavy loss of the Romans ,• but all 
was of no avail, and seeing the battle irretrievably lost, he rushed 
into the midst of the enemy, and fell, sword in hand, in a manner 
worthy of the son of Hamilcar and the brother of Hannibal, The 
Consul Nero hastened back to Apulia almost as speedily as he had 
come, and announced to Hannibal the defeat and death of his 
brother by throwing into his camp the severed head of Hasdrubal. 
"I recognize," said Hannibal, sadly, "the doom of Carthage." 

The victory of the Metaurus was, as we have already said, deci- 
sive of the fate of the war in Italy, and the conduct of Hannibal 
shows that he felt it to be such. From this time he abandoned all 
thoughts of offensive operations, and, withdrawing his garrisons 
from Metapontum and other towns that he still held in Lucania, 
collected together his forces within the peninsula of the Bruttii. In 
the fastnesses of that wild and mountainous region he maintained 
his ground for nearly four years, while the towns that he still pos- 
sessed on the coast gave him the command of the sea. 




Hannibul. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

SECOND PUNIC WAR. THIRD PERIOD : FROM THE BATTLE OP THE 
METAURUS TO THE CONCLUSION OP THE WAR. B.C. 206-201. 

After the battle of the Metaurus, the chief interest of the war 
was transferred to Spain and Africa. The Roman armies were led 
by a youthful hero, perhaps the greatest man that Rome ever pro- 
duced, with the exception of Julius Casar. The remaining period 
of the war is little more than the history of P. Scipio. This ex- 
traordinary man was the son of P. Scipio, who fell in Spain in B.C. 
212, as already related. In his early years he acquired, to an ex- 
traordinary extent, the confidence and admiration of his country- 
men. His enthusiastic mind led him to believe that he was a 
special favorite of heaven ; and he never engaged in any public or 
private business without first going to the Capitol, where he sat 
some time alone, enjoying communion with the gods. For all he 
proposed or executed he alleged the divine approval : he believed 
himself in the revelations which he asserted had been vouchsafed 
to him ; and the extraordinary success which attended all his en- 
terprises deepened this belief. 

P. Scipio is first mentioned in B.C. 218 at the battle of the Tici- 
nus, where he is reported to have saved the life of his father, though 
he was then only 17 years of age. He fought at Cannae two years 
afterward (b.c. 216), when he was already a tribune of the soldiers, 
and was one of the few Roman officers who survived that fatal 



100 HISTORY 01^ ROME. Chap. XIV. 

day. He was chosen along with Appius Claudius to command the 
remains of the army, which had taken refuge at Canusium ; and 
it was owing to his youthful heroism and presence of mind that 
the Roman nobles, who had thought of leaving Italy in despair, 
were prevented from carrying their rash project into effect. He 
had already gained the favor of the people to such an extent that 
he was unanimously elected ^dile in B.C. 212. On this occasion 
he gave indications of the pi'oud spirit, and of the disregard of all 
the forms of law, which distinguished him throughout life ; for 
when the tribunes objected to the election, because he was not of 
the legal age, he haughtily replied, "If all the Quirites wish to 
make me ^dile, I am old enough." After the death of Scipio's 
father and uncle, C. Nero was sent out as Proprator to supply their 
place ; but shortly afterward the Senate resolved to increase the 
army in Spain, and to place it under the command of a Proconsul 
to be elected by the people. But when they were assembled for 
this purpose, none of the generals of experience ventured to apply 
for so dangerous a command. At length Scipio, who was then 
barely twenty-four, to the surprise of every one, offered himself as 
a candidate. But the confidence which he felt in himself he com- 
municated to the people, and he was accordingly chosen with en- 
thusiasm to take the command. 

Scipio arrived in Spain in the summer of B.C. 210. He found 
that the three Carthaginian generals, Hasdrubal, son of Barca, Has- 
drubal, son of Cisco, and Mago, were not on good terms, and were 
at the time engaged in separate enterprises in distant parts of the 
peninsula. Instead of attacking any of them singly, he formed 
the project of striking a deadly blow at the Carthaginian power by 
a sudden and unexpected attack upon New Carthage. He gave 
the command of the fleet to his intimate friend Lalius, to whom 
alone he intrusted the secret of the expedition, while he led the 
land-forces by extremely rapid marches against the city. The 
project was crowned with complete success. The Carthaginian 
garrison did not amount to more than a thousand men, and before 
any succor could arrive New Carthage was taken by assault. The 
hostages who had been given by the various Spanish tribes to the 
Carthaginians had been placed for security in the city. These 
now fell into the hands of Scipio, who treated them with kindness ; 
and the hostages of those people who declared themselves in favor 
of the Romans were restored without ransom. Scipio also found 
in New Carthage magazines of arms, corn, and other necessaries, 
for the Carthaginians had there deposited their principal stores. 

The immediate effects of this brilliant success were immense. 
Many of the Spanish tribes deserted the Carthaginian cause ; and 



B.C. 20G-201. SECOND PUNIC WAR; THIRD PERIOD. 101 

when Scipio took the field in the following year (b.c. 209) Mando- 
nius and Indibilis, two of the most powerful and hitherto the most 
faithful supporters of Carthage, quitted the camp of Hasdrubal 
Barca, and awaited the arrival of the Roman commander. Has- 
drubal was encamped in a strong position near the town of Bsecu- 
la, in the upper valley of the B^etis (Guadalquiver), where he was 
attacked and defeated by Scipio. He succeeded, however, in mak- 
ing good his retreat, and retired into northern Spain. He subse- 
quently crossed the Pyrenees, and marched into Italy to the assist- 
ance of his brother Hannibal, as already narrated. 

In B.C. 207 Scipio gained possession of nearly the whole of Spain, 
by a decisive victory near a place variously called Silpia or Elinga, 
but the position of which is quite uncertain. 

Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, and Mago, took refuge within the walls 
of Gades, which was almost the only place that now belonged to 
the Carthaginians ; and all the native chiefs hastened to acknowl- 
edge the supremacy of Rome. But the victories of Scipio had had 
but a small share in winning Spain. His personal influence had 
won far more people than his arms had conquered. He had gain- 
ed such an ascendency over the Spaniards by his humanity and 
courage, his courtesy and energy, that they were ready to lay down 
their lives for him, and wished to make him their king. 

The subjugation of Spain was regarded by Scipio as only a means 
to an end. He had formed the project of transferring the war to 
Africa, and thus compelling the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal 
from Italy. He therefore resolved, before returning to Rome, to 
cross over into Africa, and secure, if possible, the friendship and 
co-operation of some of the native princes. His personal influence 
had already secured the attachment of Masinissa, the son of the 
king of the Massylians, or Western Numidians, who was serving 
in the Carthaginian army in Spain ; and he trusted that the same 
personal ascendency might gain the more powerful support of Sy- 
phax, the king of the Masseesylians, or Eastern Numidians. With 
oftly two quinqueremes he ventui-ed to leave his province and re- 
pair to the court of Syphax. There he met his old adversary, 
Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, who had crossed over from Gades for the 
same purpose ; and the two generals spent several days together in 
friendly intercourse. Scipio made a great impression upon Sy- 
phax; but the charms of Sophonisba, the daughter of Hasdrubal, 
whom the latter offered in marriage to Syphax, prevailed over the 
influence of Scipio. Syphax married her, and from that time be- 
came the zealous supporter and ally of the Carthaginians. 

During Scipio's absence in Africa a formidable insurrection had 
broken out in Spain ; but on his return it was speedily put down, 



102 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XIV. 

and terrible vengeance was inflicted upon the town of Illiturgis, 
which had taken the principal shai-e in the revolt. Scarcely had 
this danger passed away when Scipio was seized with a dangerous 
illness. Eight thousand of the Roman soldiers, discontented with 
not having received their usual j)ay, availed themselves of this op- 
portunity to break out into open mutiny ; but Scipio quelled it 
with his usual promptitude and energy. He crushed the last re- 
mains of the insurrection in Spain ; and to crown his other suc- 
cesses, Gades at last surrendered to the Romans. Mago had quit- 
ted Spain, and crossed over into Liguria, to effect a diversion in 
favor of his brother Hannibal, and there was therefore now no 
longer any enemy left in Spain. 

Scipio returned to Rome in B.C. 206, and immediately offered 
himself as a candidate for the consulship. He was elected for the 
following year (b.c. 205) by the unanimous votes of all the centu- 
ries, although he had not yet filled the office of Rrsetor, and was 
only 30 years of age. His colleague was P. Licinius Crassus, the 
Pontifex Maximus, who could not, therefore, leave Italy. Conse- 
quently, if the war was to be carried on abroad, the conduct of it 
must of necessity devolve upon Scipio. The latter was anxious to 
land at once in Africa, and bring the contest to an end at the gates 
of Carthage ; but the older members of the Senate, and among 
them Q. Fabius Maximus, opposed the project, partly through ti- 
midity and partly through jealousy of the youthful conqueror. All 
that Scipio could obtain was the province of Sicily, with permission 
to invade Africa if he should think it for the advantage of the Re- 
public ; but the Senate resolutely refused him an army, thus mak- 
ing the permission of no practical use. The allies had a truer 
view of the interests of Italy than the Roman Senate ; from all the 
towns of Italy volunteers flocked to join the standard of the youth- 
ful hero. The Senate could not refuse to allow him to enlist these 
volunteers ; and such was the enthusiasm in his favor that he was 
able to cross over to Sicily with an army and a fleet, contrary to the 
expectations and even the wishes of the Senate. While busy with 
preparations in Sicily, he sent over Lrelius to Africa with a small 
fleet to concert a plan of co-operation with Masinissa. But mean- 
time his enemies at Rome had nearly succeeded in depriving him 
of his command. Although he had no authority in Lower Italy, 
he had assisted in the reduction of Locri. and after the conquest 
of the town had left Q. Pleminius in command. The latter had 
been guilty of such acts of excesses against the inhabitants, that 
they sent an embassy to Rome to complain of his conduct. Q. 
Fabius Maximus eagerly availed himself of the opportunity to in- 
veigh in general against the conduct of Scipio, and to urge his im- 



B.C. 206-201. SECOND PUNIC WAR : THIRD PERIOD. 103 

mediate recall. Scipio's magnificent style of living, and his love 
of Greek literature and art, were denounced by his enemies as dan- 
gerous innovations upon old Roman manners and frugality. It 
■was asserted that the time which ought to be given to the exercise 
and the training of his troops was wasted in the Greek gymnasia 
or in literary pursuits. Though the Senate lent a willing ear to 
these attacks, they did not venture upon his immediate recall, but 
sent a commission into Sicily to inquire into the state of the army. 
During the winter Scipio had been busy in completing his prepara- 
tions ; and by this time he had collected all his stores, and brought 
his army and navy into the most efficient state. The commission- 
ers were astonished at what they saw. Instead of ordering him 
to return to Rome, they bade him cross over to Africa as soon as 
possible. 

Accordingly, in B.C. 204, Scipio, who was now Proconsul, sailed 
from Lilybffium and landed in Africa, not far from Utica. He was 
immediately joined by Masinissa, who rendered him the most im- 
portant services in the war. He commenced the campaign by lay- 
ing siege to Utica, and took up his quarters on a projecting head- 
land to the east of the town, on a spot which long bore the name 
of the Cornelian Camp. Meantime the Carthaginians had collect- 
ed a powerful army, which they placed under the command of 
Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, Scipio's old opponent in Spain ; and Sy- 
phax came to their assistance with a great force. 

In the beginning of B.C. 203 Scipio planned a night-attack upon 
the two camps occupied by Hasdrubal and Syphax. With the as- 
sistance of Masinissa, his enterprise was crowned with success : 
the two camps were burned to the gi-ound, and only a few of the 
enemy escaped the fire and the sword. Among these, however, 
were both Hasdrubal and Syphax; the former fled to Carthage, 
where he persuaded the Senate to raise another army, and the lat- 
ter retreated to his native dominions, where he likewise collected 
fresh troops. But their united forces were again defeated by 
Scipio. Hasdrubal did not venture to make his appearance again 
in Carthage, and Syphax once more fled into Numidia. Scipio 
did not give the Numidian prince any repose ; he was pursued by 
Laslius and Masinissa, and finally taken prisoner. Among the 
captives who fell into their hands was Sophonisba, the wife of Sy- 
phax, whom Masinissa had long loved, and had expected to marry 
when she was given to his rival. Masinissa now not only promised 
to presence her from captivity, but, to prevent her falling into the 
hands of the Romans, determined to marry her himself. Their nup- 
tials were accordingly celebrated without delay ; but Scipio, fear- 
ful of the influence which she might exercise over his ally, sternly 



104 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XIV. 

upbraided him with his weakness, and insisted on the immediate 
surrender of the princess. Unable to resist this command, Masi- 
nissa spared her the humiliation of captivity by sending her a bowl 
of poison, which she drank without hesitation, and thus put an end 
to her own life. 

These repeated disasters so alarmed the Carthaginians that they 
resolved to recall Hannibal and Mago. Hannibal quitted Italy in 
B.C. 203, to the great joy of the Romans. For more than 15 years 
had he carried on the war in that country, laying it waste from one 
extremity to another ; and during all this period his superiority in 
the field had been uncontested. The Romans calculated that in 
these 15 years tlieir losses in the field alone had amounted to not 
less than 300,000 men ; a statement which will hardly appear ex- 
aggerated when we consider the continued combats in which they 
were engaged by their ever-watchful foe. 

As soon as Hannibal landed in Africa the hopes of the Cartha- 
ginians revived, and they looked forward to a favorable termina- 
tion of the war. Hannibal, however, formed a truer estimate of 
the real state of affairs ; he saw that the loss of a battle would be 
the ruin of Carthage, and he was therefore anxious to conclude a 
peace before it was too late. Scipio, who was eager to have the 
glory of bringing the war to a close, and who feared lest his ene- 
mies in the Senate might appoint him. a successor, was equally de- 
sirous of a peace. The terms, however, which the Roman general 
proposed seemed intolerable to the Carthaginians ,• and as Hanni- 
bal, at a personal interview with Scipio, could not obtain any abate- 
ment of the hard conditions, he was forced, against his will, to con- 
tinue the war. Into the details of the campaign, which are re- 
lated very differently, our limits will not permit us to enter. The 
decisive battle was at length fought on the 19th of October, B.C. 
202, on the Bagradas, not far from the city of Zama ; and Hanni- 
bal, according to the express testimony of his antagonist, displayed 
on this occasion all the qualities of a consummate general. IBut 
he was now particularly deficient in that formidable cavalry which 
had so often decided the victory in his favor ; his elephants, of 
Avhich he had a great number, were rendered unavailing by the 
skillful management of Scipio ; and the battle ended in his com- 
plete defeat, notwithstanding the heroic exertions of his veteran in- 
fantry. Twenty thousand of his men fell on the field of battle, as 
many were made prisoners, and Hannibal himself with difiiculty 
escaped the pursuit of Masinissa. Upon his arrival at Carthage 
he was the first to admit the magnitude of the disaster, and to 
point out the impossibility of the farther prosecution of the war. 
The terms, however, now imposed by Scipio were much more se- 



B.C. 206-201. SECOND PUNIC WAR: THIRD PERIOD. 105 

vere than before. Carthage had no alternative but submission ; 
but the negotiations were continued for some time, and a final 
treaty was not concluded till the following year (b.c. 201). By 
this treaty it was agreed that the Carthaginians were to preserve 
their independence and territory in Africa, but to give up all claims 
to any foreign possessions j that they were to surrender all prison- 
ers and deserters, all their ships of war except ten triremes, and 
all their elephants ; that they were not to make war in Africa, or 
out of Africa, without the consent of Rome ; that they were to ac- 
knowledge Masinissa as king of Numidia ; that they were to pay 
10,000 talents in silver in the course of fifty years. 

Scipio returned to Italy in b.c. 201, and entered Rome in tri- 
umph. He was received with universal enthusiasm j the surname 
of Africanus was conferred upon him, and the people, in their grati- 
tude, were anxious to distinguish him with the most extraordinary 
marks of honor. It is related that they wished to make him Con- 
sul and Dictator for life, and to erect his statue in the Comitia, 
the Senate-house, and even in the Capitol, but that he prudently 
declined all these invidious distinctions. 




The Capitoline Wolf. 




Coin of Antiochus the Great. 



CHAPTER XV. 

WARS m THE EAST. THE MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GALATIAN 
WARS. B.C. 214-188. 

The Second Punic War made the Romans undisputed masters 
of the western shores of the Mediterranean. Sicily, Sardinia, and 
Corsica were Roman provinces ; Spain owned the Roman suprem- 
acy ; Carthage was completely humbled, and her powerful neigh- 
bor Masinissa was the steadfast ally of Rome. The Roman Re- 
public was now the most powerful state in the ancient world. 
Her legions had been trained to war by long struggles with Gauls, 
Spaniards, and Africans, and were superior to all other troops in 
discipline, experience, and valor. She now naturally turned her 
eyes toward the East, whose effeminate nations seemed to offer an 
easy conquest. 

The Greek kingdoms in Asia, founded by the successors of 
Alexander the Great, bore within them the seeds of decay. The 
mighty kingdom of Syria, which had once extended from the In- 
dus to the ^Egean Sea, had now lost some of its fairest proA'inces. 
The greater part of Asia Minor no longer owned the authority of 
tjie Syrian kings. Pontus was governed by its own rulers. A 
large body of Gauls had settled in the northern part of Phrygia, 
which district was now called Galatia after them. A new king- 
dom was founded in Mysia, to which the name of Pergamus was 
given from its chief city ; and Attains, who was king of Pergamus 
during the Second Punic War, formed an alliance with Rome as a 
protection against Syria and Macedonia. The king of Syria at this 
time was Antiochus III., who, from his victory over the Parthians, 
had received the surname of the Great. , 



B.C. 214-188. WARS IN THE EAST. 107 

Egypt was governed by the Greek monarchs who bore the 
name of Ptolemy. They had, even as early as the time of Pyr- 
rhus, formed an alliance Avith Rome (see p. G6). The kingdom had 
since declined in power, and upon the death of Ptolemy IV., sur- 
named Philopator, in B.C. 205, the ministers of his infant son Ptol- 
emy Epiphanes, dreading the ambitious designs of the Macedonian 
and Syrian kings, placed him under the protection of the Roman 
Senate, who consented to become his guardians. 

The Republic of Rhodes was the chief maritime power in the 
^gean Sea. It extended its dominion over a portion of the op- 
posite coasts of Caria and Lycia, and over several of the neighbor- 
ing islands. Like the king of Pergamus, the Rhodians had form- 
ed an alliance with Rome as a protection against Macedonia. 

Macedonia was still a powerful kingdom, governed at this time 
by Philip V., a monarch of considerable ability, who ascended the 
throne in B.C. 220, at the early age of seventeen. His dominion 
extended over the greater part of Greece ; but two new powers had 
sprung up since the death of Alexander, which served as some 
counterpoise to the Macedonian supremacy. Of these the most 
important was the Ach^an League, which embraced Corinth, Ar- 
cadia, and the greater part of the Peloponnesus.* The JStolian 
League included at this time a considerable portion of Central 
Greece. Athens and Sparta still retained their independence, 
but with scarcely a shadow of their foi-mer greatness and power. 

Such was the state of the Eastern world when it came into con- 
tact with the arms of Rome. 

We have already seen that during the Second Punic War Philip 
had been engaged in hostilities with the Roman Republic. De- 
metrius of Pharos, who had been driven by the Romans from his 
Illyrian dominions,! had taken refuge at the court of Philip, and 
soon acquired unbounded influence over the mind of the young 
king. This wily Greek urged him to take up arms against the 
grasping Republic ; and the ambition of Philip was still farther 
excited by the victories of Hannibal. After the battle of Cannes 
(B.C. 21G) he concluded a treaty with Hannibal; but, instead of 
supporting the Carthaginian army and fleet, his proceedings were 
marked by an unaccountable degree of hesitation and delay. It 
was not till b.c. 214 that he appeared in the Adriatic with a fleet, 
and laid siege to Oricus and Apollonia, which the Romans had re- 
tained possession of at the close of the Illyrian Mar.t He succeed- 
ed in taking Oricus ; but the arrival of a small Roman force, un- 
der the command of M. Valerius La^vinus, compelled him to raise 
the siege of Apollonia, and to burn his own ships to prevent their 
* See the '•'■ SmaUcr History of Greece," p. 214. t See p. 79. 



108 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XV. 

falling into the hands of the enemy. For the next three years the 
Avar was carried on with unaccountable slackness on both sides ; 
but in B.C. 211 it assumed a new character in consequence of the 
alliance which the Romans formed with the -3i^tolian League. 
Into the details of the campaigns which followed it is imnecessary 
to enter ; but the attention of the Romans was soon afterward di- 
rected to affairs in Spain, and the -^i^tolians were left almost alone 
to cope with Philip. The Ach£eans also joined Philip against the 
iEtolians, and the latter people were so hard pressed that they 
were glad to make peace with the Macedonian king. Shortly aft- 
erward the Romans, who were desirous of turning their undivided 
attention to the invasion of Africa, also concluded peace with him 
(B.C. 205). 

The peace, which thus terminated the First Macedonian War, 
was probably regarded by both parties as little more than a sus- 
pension of hostilities. Philip even went so far as to send to the 
Carthaginians in Africa a body of 4000 men, who fought at Zama 
under the command of Hannibal. At the same time he proceeded 
to carry out his plans for his own aggrandizement in Greece, with 
out any regard to the Roman alliances in that country. In order 
to establish his naval supremacy in the JEgQun Sea, he attacked 
the Rhodians and Attains, king of Pergamus, both of whom were 
allies of Rome. He had also previously made a treaty with An- 
tiochus, king of Syria, for the dismemberment of the Egyptian 
monarchy, which was placed under the guardianship of tlie Roman 
people. 

It was impossible for the Senate to pass over these acts of hos- 
tility, and accordingly, in the year after the conclusion of the Sec- 
ond Punic War, the Consul P. Sulpicius Galba proposed to the 
Comitia of the Centuries that war should be declared against Phil- 
ip. But the people longed for repose, and rejected the proposition 
by the almost unanimous vote of every century. It was only by 
the most earnest remonstrance, and by representing to them that, 
unless they attacked Philip in Greece, he Avould invade Italy, like 
Hannibal, that they were induced to reverse their decision and de- 
clare war (B.C. 200). 

Philip was at this time engaged in the siege of Athens, which 
had joined Attains and the Rhodians. The Consul Galba crossed 
over to Epirus, and Athens was relieved by a Roman fleet ; but 
before he withdrew, Philip, prompted by anger and revenge, dis- 
played his barbarism by destroying the gardens and buildings in 
the suburbs, including the Lyceum and the tombs of the Attic he- 
roes ; and in a second incursion which he made with large re-en- 
forcements he committed still greater excesses. For some time, 



B.C. 214-188. WARS IN THE EAST. 109 

however, the war lin^^ered on •without any decided success on either 
side. The Consul Villius, who succeeded Galba in b.c. 199, ef- 
fected nothing of importance, and it was not till the appointment 
of the Consul T. Quinctius Flamininus to the command tliat the 
war Avas carried on with energy and vigor (b.c. 198). He forced 
his way through the passes of Antigonea, which were occupied by 
the enemy, invaded Thessaly, and took up his winter quarters in 
Phocis and Locris. In the following year (b.c. 197) the struggle 
was brought to a termination by the battle of Cynoscephalie (Dogs' 
Heads), a range of hills near Scotussa, in Thessaly. The Roman 
legions gained an easy victory over the once formidable Macedo- 
nian phalanx : 8000 Macedonians were killed and 5000 taken pris- 
oners, while Flamininus lost only 700 men. Philip was obliged 
to sue for peace, and in the following year (b.c. 196) a treaty was 
ratified by which the Macedonians were compelled to renounce 
their supremacy, to withdraw their garrisons from the Grecian 
towns, to surrender their fleet, and to pay 1000 talents for the ex- 
penses of the war, half at once, and half by annual instalments in 
the course of ten years. Thus ended the Second Macedonian 
War. 

At the ensuing Isthmian games, which were celebrated at Cor- 
inth in the summer of this year, Flamininus w^as present, and a 
herald at his command solemnly proclaimed the independence and 
freedom of Greece. This unexpected news was received with 
overwhelming gratitude and joy; the throngs of people that crowd- 
ed round Flamininus to catch a sight of their liberator, or to touch 
his garment, were so enormous as almost to endanger his life. 

Flamininus remained two years longer in Greece in order to 
settle the affairs of the country. He seems to have been actuated 
by a sincere desire to restore the internal peace and welfare of 
Greece ; and whenever his actions appear at variance with this 
object, he was under the influence of the policy of the Republic. 
Thus, though he made war upon Nabis, the tyrant of Sparta, and 
deprived him of the southern portion of Laconia, he did not expel 
him from Sparta, that he might sei-ve as a useful check upon the 
Achseans. When Flamininus returned to Italy in b.c. 194, he 
withdrew the Roman garrisons from all the Grecian towns, even 
from Corinth, Chalcis, and Demetrias, the three strongest fortresses 
in the country, which were called the Fetters of Greece. On his 
departure he convoked an assembly of the Greeks at Corinth, in 
which he exhorted them to use their freedom wisely, and to re- 
main faithful to Rome. Flamininus had been absent five years. 
His reputation was second only to that of Scipio African us. His 
triumph, which was most magnificent, lasted three days. 



110 HISTORY OF KOME. Chap. XV. 

It has been already mentioned that Philip had formed an al- 
liance with Antiochus III., king of Syria, surnamed the Great, for 
the dismemberment of the Egyptian monarchy. During the war 
between Philip and the Romans, Antiochus had occupied Asia Mi- 
nor, and was preparing to cross into Greece. Upon the conclu- 
sion of this war, Flamininus sternly forbade him to set foot in Eu- 
rope, and for a time he shrank from a contest with the victorious 
arms of Rome. But the ^tolians, who had fought on the Roman 
side, were discontented with the arrangements of Flamininus. 
Their arrogance led them to claim the chief merit of the victory 
of Cynoscephalae, and their cupidity desired a larger share in the 
spoils of the war. Flamininus had scarcely quitted Greece before 
the ^tolians endeavored to persuade Philip, Nabis, and Antiochus 
to enter into a league against the Romans. Philip at once re- 
fused, but Nabis took up arms, and Antiochus willingly entered 
into the designs of the iEtolians. At this time Hannibal appear- 
ed as an exile at the Syrian court. After the Second Punic War 
he had set himself to work, like his father Hamilcar at the end of 
the previous war, to prepare means for renewing the contest at no 
distant period. He introduced various reforms in the constitu- 
tion, and seems to have deprived the Oligarchy of their exclusive 
power ; but they avenged themselves by denouncing him to the 
Romans as engaged in negotiations with Antiochus to induce him 
to take up arms against Rome. The Senate sent envoys to Car- 
thage to inquire into these charges ; and Hannibal, seeing that his 
enemies were too strong for him, secretly took flight, and reached 
the court of Antiochus in safety. He was received with the high- 
est honors, and urged the king to place an army at his disposal 
with which he might invade Italy. But Antiochus was persuaded 
by the ^tolians to cross over into Greece, and accordingly landed 
at Demetrias in Thessaly in b.c. 192. The Romans now declared 
war against Antiochus, and in the following year (b.c. 191) the 
Consul Acilius Glabrio marched into Thessaly. The king had 
intrenched himself in the passes of Thermopylee, that he might 
prevent the Romans from penetrating into Central Greece. But 
there was, as is well known, a difficult passage across Mount 
CEta, by which the Persians had descended to fight with Leonidas. 
This passage Avas now forced by M. Cato, who was serving as one 
of the Consul's lieutenants, and as soon as he appeared in the rear 
of the Syrian army they fled in confusion, and the battle was won. 
Antiochus now hastened back to Asia, abandoning all farther hopes 
of conquest in Greece. As soon as he had placed the sea between 
himself and the Romans he thought that he was safe ; but Hanni- 



B.C. 2U-188. WARS IN THE EAST. Ill 

bal warned him of his error, and said that he wondered that the 
Romans had not ah'eady followed him. 

Next year (b.c. 190) L. Cornelius Scipio, the brother of the 
great Africanus, and C. Lselius, the intimate friend of the latter, 
were Consuls. L. Scipio was anxious to have the command of the 
war against Antiochus ; but the Senate had not much confidence 
in his ability, and it was only in consequence of his brother Afri- 
canus offering to serve under him as his lieutenant that he obtain- 
ed the command which he desired. Meantime Antiochus had col- 
lected a vast army from all parts of his dominions, and, advancing 
northward from Ephesus, laid waste the kingdom of Pergamus. 
But upon the approach of the Roman army, which entered Asia by 
crossing the Hellespont, Antiochus retreated southward ; and the 
decisive battle was fought near Magnesia, at the foot of Mount Si- 
pylus. The Romans obtained an easy and bloodless victory over 
the vast but disorderly rabble of the Syrian monarch. Only 400 
Romans fell, while Antiochus lost 53,000 men. He at once gave 
up the contest in despair, and humbly sued for peace. The con- 
ditions were hard. He had to cede all his dominions west of 
Mount Taurus (that is, the whole of Asia Minor), to pay 15,000 
Euboic talents within twelve years, to give up his elephants and 
ships of war, and to surrender to the Romans Hannibal and some 
others who had taken refuge at his court. Hannibal foresaw his 
danger, and made his escape to Crete, from whence he afterward 
repaired to the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia. 

L. Scipio returned to Rome in the following year, bringing with 
him enormous treasures. In imitation of his brother, he assumed 
the surname of Asiaticus. 

The Romans were now at leisure to punish the JEtolians, who 
had to make head against the Romans by themselves. The Con- 
sul M. Fulvius Nobilior (b.c. 189) took their chief town, Ambra- 
cia, after an obstinate resistance, and compelled them to sue for 
peace. This was granted, but on the most humiliating conditions. 
They were required to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome, to re- 
nounce all the conquests they had recently made, to pay an indem- 
nity of 500 talents, and to engage in future to aid the Romans in 
their wars. The power of the -^tolian league was thus forever 
crushed, though it seems to have existed, in name at least, till a 
much later period. 

The colleague of M. Fulvius Nobilior was Cn. Manlius Vulso, 
who had received Asia as his province, that he might conclude the 
peace which his predecessor, Scipio Asiaticus, had made with An- 
tiochus, and arrange the affairs of Asia. But Manlius was not 
content with the subordinate part allotted to him ; and being anx- 



112 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XV. 

ious for booty as much as for glory, he attacked the Galatians in 
Asia Minor, without waiting for any instructions from the Senate, 
and in direct opposition to the ten commissioners who had been 
sent to arrange conjointly with him the affairs of Asia. This was 
the first instance in which a Roman general had made war without 
the authority of the Senate or the People ; a dangerous precedent, 
which was afterward only too faithfully followed. The Galatians 
were, as has been already said, a body of Gauls, who, after laying 
waste a great part of Asia Minor, had settled in the north of Phry- 
gia. They had fought in the army of Antiochus at Magnesia, and 
this supplied Manlius with a pretext for marching against them. 
He defeated them in two battles, and compelled them to sue for 
peace. The campaign greatly enriched Manlius and his legions, 
as the Gauls had accumulated enormous wealth by their many 
conquests in Asia. 

Manlius remained another year (b.c. 188) in the East as Pro- 
consul, and, in conjunction with the ten commissioners, formally 
concluded the peace with Antiochus, and settled the affairs of Asia. 
Eumenes, the king of Pergamus, received Mysia, Lydia, and part 
of Caria. The Rhodians obtained the remaining portion of Caria, 
together with Lycia and Pisidia. Manlius returned to Rome in 
B.C. 187, and his triumph, like that of Scipio Asiaticus, was most 
magnificent. But his soldiers, like that of Scipio, introduced into 
the city the luxuries of the East, These campaigns, as we shall 
presently see, exercised a most injurious influence upon the char- 
acter of the Roman nobles and people, teaching them to love war 
for the sake of acquiring wealth, and prompting them to acts of 
robbery and rapine. 




Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.; 



CHAPTER XVI. 

WARS IN THE WEST. THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH WARS. 
B.C. 200-175. 

While the Roman legions in the East were acquiring wealth 
and winning easy conquests, their less fortunate comrades in the 
West were carrying on a severe struggle with the warlike Gauls, 
Ligurians, and Spaniards. The Romans had hardly concluded the 
Second Punic War when they received intelligence that Hamilcar, 
a Carthaginian officer, had excited several tribes in Northern Italy 
to take up arms against Rome. These were the Gauls on both 
sides of the Po, and the Ligurians, a race of hardy mountaineers, 
inhabiting the upper Apennines and the Maritime Alps. They 
commenced the war in b.c. 200 by the capture and destruction of 
the Roman colony of Placentia, and by laying siege to that of Cre- 
mona, the two strong-holds of the Roman dominion in Northern 
Italy. Tlie Romans now set themselves to work, with the charac- 
teristic stubbornness of their nation, to subdue thorouglily these 

H 



114 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XVI. 

tribes. The Insubres and the Cenomani, to the north of the Po, 
were the first to yield ; but the Boii resisted for some years all the 
efforts of the Romans, and it was not till B.C. 191 that the Consul 
P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica received their final submission. He 
slaughtered the Boii without mercy, and made it one of the claims 
of his triumph that he had left only children and old men alive. 
This warlike people was now thoroughly subdued, and from hence- 
forth Cisalpine Gaul became a Roman province, and gradually- 
adopted the language and customs of Rome. " The submission of 
the people was secured by the foundation of new colonies and the 
formation of military roads. In B.C. 190 a colony was established 
at Bononia, now Bologna, in the country of the Boii, and six years 
afterward others were also founded at Mutina (Modena) and Par- 
ma. A military road made by M. ^milius Lepidus, Consul for 
B.C. 180, and called the Via Emilia, was a continuation of the 
Via Flaminia, and ran from Ariminum past Placentia, Mutina, and 
Parma to Placentia. The subjugation of the Ligurians was a lon- 
ger and nwre difficult task. These hardy mountaineers continued 
the war, with intermissions, for a period of eighty years. The 
Romans, after penetrating into the heart of Liguria, were seldom 
able to effect more than to compel the enemy to disperse, and take 
refuge in their villages and castles, of which the latter were mount- 
ain fastnesses, in which they were generally able to defy their pur- 
suers. But into the details of these long-protracted and inglorious 
hostilities it is unnecessary to enter. 

The conquests of Scipio Africanus had driven the Carthaginians 
out of Spain, and established the Roman supremacy in that coun- 
try. Accordingly, soon after the end of the Second Punic War 
(about B.C. 198), the Romans proceeded to consolidate their domin- 
ion in Spain by dividing it into two provinces, each governed by a 
Praetor, which were called Hispania Citerior, or Hither Spain, and 
Hispania Ulterior, or Farther Spain, and divided from each other 
by the Iberus or the Ebro. But it was little more than the east- 
ern part of the peninsula that was really subject to Rome. The 
powerful tribes of the Celtiberians in Central Spain, the Lusitani- 
ans in Portugal, and the Cantabrians and Gallrecians in the north- 
west, still maintained their independence. The division of the 
country into two provinces showed that the Romans intended to 
occixpy it permanently, and occasioned a general insurrection. 

The Consul M. Porcius Cato, of whom we shall speak more 
fully presently, was sent to put down this insurrection (b.c. 195). 
The whole country was in arms ; but his military genius and inde- 
fatigable industry soon re-established the superiority of Rome. 
He gained several decisive victories, contrived to set tribe against 



B.C. 200-175. 



WARS IN THE WEST. 



115 



tribe, and took native mercenaries info his pay. The details of 
his campaign are full of horrors. We read of the wholesale slaugh- 
ter of men who had laid down their arms, of multitudes sold as 
slaves, and of many more who had put themselves to death to es- 
cape this fate. Cato was not the man to feel any compunctions 
of conscience in the performance of what he considered a rigorous 
public task. He boasted of having destroyed more towns in Spain 
than he had spent days in that country. When he had reduced 
the whole of Hither Spain to a hollow, sullen, and temjiorary sub- 
mission, he returned to Rome, and was rewarded with a triumph. 

The severe measures of Cato only exasperated the Spaniards. 
They again took up arms, and continued to resist the Roman Prae- 
tors for the next sixteen years, till Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the 
father of the celebrated tribunes, after gaining several brilliant vic- 
tories over the Celtiberians, granted them an honorable peace. By 
his wise measures and conciliatory conduct he won the aft'ections 
of the natives, and induced them to submit to the Roman suprem- 
acy (B.C. 179). 

It remains to mention two other wars in the West. The Sardin- 
ians and Corsicans revolted, and held out for two years against 
the Conqueror of Spain (b.c. 177-175). But Gracchus effected 
their complete subjugation, and brought to Rome so large a num- 
ber of captives for sale as to give rise to the proverb " Sardi vena- 
les" for any thing that was cheap and worthless. 

The Istrians, near the head of the Adriatic Gulf, had been con- 
quered by the Romans just before the Second Punic War. But 
their complete subjugation was now necessary, on account of their 
proximity to the newly-formed province of Cisalpine Gaul. Ac- 
cordingly, the Consuls invaded Istria in b.c. 178, and in the follow- 
ing year the whole people was reduced to submission. 




Temple of Jupiter (Japitolinus. (Fioni a Coin.) 




Lictors. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMY. 

The career of foreign conquest upon which the Republic had 
now entered continued with little or no interruption till the estab- 
lishment of the Emjiire. We may here pause to take a brief sur- 
vey of the form of government, as Avell as of the military organiza- 
tion by which these conquests were effected. 

The earlier history of the Roman constitution has been already 
related. "We have seen how, after a long struggle, the Plebeians 
acquired complete political equality with the Patricians. In the 
Second Punic War, the antagonism between the two orders had 
almost disappeared, and the only mark of separation between them 
in political matters was the regulation that, of the two Consuls 
and two Censors, one must be a Patrician and the other a Plebeian. 
Even this fell into disuse upon the rise of the new Nobility, of 
which we shall speak in the next chapter. The Patricians gradu- 
ally dwindled away, and it became the custom to elect both Con- 
suls and Censors from the Plebeians.* 

* Two Plebeian Consuls were first appointed in e.g. 172, and two riebeian Cen- 
sors in 1J.C. 131. 



Chap. XVII. THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION. 117 

I. The Magistrates. — Eveiy Roman citizen who aspired to 
the consulship had to pass througli a regular gradation of public 
olfices, and the earliest age at which he could become a candidate 
for them was fixed by a law passed in B.C. 179, and known by the 
name of the Lex Annalis. The earliest age for the Quaestorship, 
which was the first of these magistracies, was 27 years ; for the 
^dileship, 37; for the Prietorship, 40; and for the Consulship, 43. 

All magistrates at Rome were divided into Ourules and those 
who were not Curules. The Curule Magistrates were the Dicta- 
tors, Censors, Consuls, Prcetors, and Curule ^diles, and were so 
called because they had the right of sitting upon the Sella Gundis, 
originally an emblem of kingly power, imported, along with other 
insignia of royalty, from Etruria. ^ 

1. The Qucestors were the paymasters of the state. It was their 
duty to receive the revenues, and to make all the necessary pay- 
ments for the military and civil services. There were originally 
only two Quaestors, but their number was constantly increased with 
the conquests of the Republic. Besides two Quiestors wlio always 
remained at Rome, every Consul or Prastor who conducted a war 
or governed a province was attended by one of these magistrates. 

2. The ^fJdileship was originally a Plebeian office, instituted at 
the same time as the Tribunesliip of the Plebs.* To the two Ple- 
beian -^]diles two Curule ^diles were added in B.C. 305: The 
four JEdiles in common had the charge of the public buildings, f 
the care of the cleansing and draining of the city, and the super- 
intendence of the police. They had also the regulation of the 
public festivals ; and the celebration of the Ludi Magni, or Great 
Games, was their especial function. Originally they received a 
sum of money from the state to defray the expenses of these games, 
but the grant was withdrawn about the time of the First Punic 
War; a measure attended with important consequences, since the 
higher magistracies were thus confined to the wealthy, who alone 
could defray the charges of these costly entertainments. After the 
Macedonian and Syrian wars, the Curule ^diles often incurred a 
prodigious expense, with the view of pleasing the people, and se- 
curing their votes in future elections. 

3. The institution of the Prtviorship in B.C. o6G has been already 
narrated. There was originally only one Praetor, subsequently 
called Prtetor Urbanus, whose chief duty was the administration 
of justice. In b.c. 246 a second Praetor was added, who had to 
decide cases in which foreigners were concerned, and who was 
hence called Praitor Peregrinus. When the territories of the state 
extended beyond Italy, new Prjietors were created to govern the 

• Pee p. 31. t Hence their name, from A^jdes, a temple. 



118 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XVIL 

provinces. Two Proetors were appointed to take the administra- 
tion of Sicily and Sardinia (b.c. 227), and two more were added 
when the two Spanish provinces were formed (b.c. 197). There 
were thus six Prgetors, two of whom staid in the city and the 
other four went abroad. Each Prtetor was attended by six Lie- 
tors. 

4. The Consuls were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome, 
and were at tlie head both of the state and the army. They con- 
voked the Senate and the Assembly of the Centuries ; they pre- 
sided in each, and had to see that the resolutions of the Senate and 
the People were carried into effect. They had the supreme com- 
mand of the armies in virt^ of the Imperium conferred upon them 
by a special vote of the People. At the head of the army, they 
had full power of life and death over their soldiers. They were 
])receded by twelve lictors, but this outward sign of power was en- 
joyed by them month by month in turn. 

The magistrates above-mentioned were elected annually, but it 
was the practice frequently to prolong the command of the Consuls 
or Prietors in the provinces under the titles of Proconsuls or Pro- 
prietors, In the later times of the Republic it was usual for both 
Consuls and several Praetors to remain at Rome during their year 
of office, and at its close to take the command of provinces, with 
the titles of Proconsuls or Proprietors. 

5. The Dictator shiji, which occurs so often in the early history 
of the Republic, disappears altogether after the Second Punic War. 
As the Republic became powerful, and had no longer to dread any 
enemies in Italy, there was no necessity for such an extraordinary 
magistracy as the Dictatorship, but whenever internal dangers 
seemed to require a stronger executive, the Senate invested the 
Consuls with dictatorial power.* 

6. The Censors were two in number, elected every five years, but 
they held their office for a year and a half. They were taken, as 
a general rule, from those who had been previously Consuls, and 
their office was regarded as the highest dignity in the state. Their 
duties, which were very extensive and very important, may be di- 
vided into three classes, all of which, however, were closely con- 
nected. 

(a). Their first and most important duty was to take the Cen- 
sus. This was not simply a list of the population, according to 
the modern use of the word, but a valuation of the property of every 
Roman citizen. This valuation was necessary, not only for the 
assessment of the property-tax, but also for determining the posi- 

* This was done by the well-known formula " Videant," or " Dent operam Con- 
Bules, ne quid res publica detriment cnpiat." 



Chap.XVIL the ROMAN CONSTITUTION. 119 

tion of every citizen in the state, wliich was regulated, in accord- 
ance with the constitution of Servius Tullius, by the amount of 
his property. Accordingly, the Censors had to draw up lists of the 
Classes and Centuries. They also made out the lists of the Sena- 
tors and Equites, striking out the names of all whom they deemed 
imworthy, and filling up all vacancies in the Senate. 

(b.) The Censors possessed a general control over the conduct 
and morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this important pow- 
er they were not guided by any rules of law, but simply by their 
own sense of duty. They punished acts of private as well as pub- 
lic immorality, and visited with their censure not only offenses 
against the laws, but every thing opposed to the old Roman char- 
acter and habits, such as living in celibacy, extravagance, luxury, 
etc. They had the power of degrading every citizen to a lower 
rank, of expelling Senators from the Senate, of depriving the Equi- 
tes of their hoj^ses, and of removing ordinary citizens from their 
tribes, and thus excluding them from all political rights. 

(c.) The Censors also had the administration of the finances of 
the state, under the direction of the Senate. They let out the tax- 
es to the highest bidders for the space of a lustrum, or five years.* 
They likewise received from the Senate certain sums of money to 
keep the public buildings, roads, and aqueducts in repair,! and to 
construct new public works in Rome and other parts of Italy. 
Hence we find that many of the great public roads, such as the Via 
Appia and Via Flaminia, were made by Censors. 

II. The Senate. — The Senate was in reality the executive gov- 
ernment of Rome, and the Magistrates, of whom we have been 
speaking, were only its ministers. The Senate consisted of Three 
Hundred members, who held the dignity for life unless expelled 
by the Censors for reasons already mentioned, but they could not 
transmit the honor to their sons. All vacancies in the body were 
filled up by the Censors every five years from those who had held 
the Quajstorship or any higher magistracy. The Censors were 
thus contined in their selection to those who had already received 
the confidence of the people, and no one could therefore enter the 
Senate unless he had some experience in political afi'airs. 

The power of the Senate was very great. It exercised a control 
over legislation, since no law could be proposed to the Asseml)lies 
of the People unless it had first received the approval of the Sen- 

* These farmers of the public revenue were called Puhh'cnni. 

t It Is not easy to define with accuracy tlie rfspective duties of the Censors and 
JEdiles in relation to the public buildings; but it may be stated in general that 
the superintendence of the ^lldiles was more in the way of police, while that of 
the ("ensorp had reference to all financial matters- 



120 HISTORY OF EOME. Chap. XVII. 

ate. In many cases " Senatus consulta"* were passed, which had 
tlie force of laws without being submitted to the Popular Assem- 
blies at all. This was especially the case in matters affecting re- 
ligion, police, administration, the provinces, and all foreign rela- 
tions. 

In foreign affairs the authority of the Senate was absolute, witli 
the exception of declaring war and making peace, which needed 
the sanction of the Centuries. The Senate assigned the provinces 
into which the Consuls and Praetors were to be sent ; they determ- 
ined the manner in which a war was to be conducted, and the 
number of troops to be levied ; they prolonged the command of a 
general or superseded him at their pleasure, and on his return they 
granted or refused him a triumph ; they alone carried on negoti- 
ations with foreign states, and all embassadors to foreign powers 
were appointed by the Senate from their own body. 

In home affairs they had the superintendence iy all matters of 
religion. They had also the entire administration of the finances. 
When the Republic was in danger the Senate had the power of 
suspending the laws by the appointment of a Dictator, or by in- 
vesting the Consuls with dictatorial power, as already mentioned. 

III. The Popular Assemblies. — 1. The Comitia Curiata, the 
Patrician assembly, had become a mere form as early as the First 
Punic War. The gradual decline of its power has been already 
traced. It continued to meet for the transaction of certain matters 
pertaining to the Patrician gentes, but was represented simply by 
30 lictors. 

2. The constitution of the Comitia Centuriata, as established by 
Servius Tullius,t had undergone a great change between the time 
of the Licinian Rogations and the Punic Wars, but both the exact 
time and nature of this change are unknown. It appears, howev- 
er, that its object was to give more power and influence to the pop- 
ular element in the state. For this purpose the 35 tribes were 
taken as the basis of the new Constitution of the Centuries. Each 
tribe Avas probably divided into five property Classes, and each 
Classis was subdivided into two Centuries, one of Seniores and the 
other of Juniores. Each tribe would thus contain 10 Centuries, 
and, consequently, the 35 tribes would have 350 Centuries, so that, 
with the 18 Centuries of the Knights, the total number of the Cen- 
turies would be 368. 

The Comitia of the Centuries still retained the election of the 
higher magistrates, the power of enacting laws, of declaring war 

* A Senatus consulturn was so called because the Consul who brought a matter 
before the Senate was said Scnatum coiuulere, t See p. 19. 



Chap. XVII. THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION. 121 

and making peace, and also the highest judicial functions. Accu- 
sations for treason were brought before the Centuries, and in all 
criminal matters every Roman citizen could appeal to them.* But, 
notwithstanding these extensive powers, their influence in the state 
was gradually superseded by the Assembly of the Tribes. 

3. The Comitia Tribiita obtained its superior influence and pow- 
er mainly through its Tribunes. The Assembly of the Centuries, 
being summoned and presided over by the Consuls, was, to a great 
extent, an instrument in the hands of the Senate, while that of 
the Tribes, being guided by its own magistrates, and representing 
the popular element, was frequently opposed to the Senate, and 
took an active part in the internal administration of the state. 
The increasing power of the Tribunes naturally led to a correspond- 
ing increase in the power of the Tribes. The right of Intercessiont 
possessed by the Tribunes was extended to all matters. Thus we 
find the Tribunes preventing the Consuls from summoning the 
Senate and from proposing laws to the Comitia of the Centuries. 
As the persons of the Tribunes were sacred, the Senate could exer- 
cise no control over them, while they, on the contrary, could even 
seize a Consul or a Censor, and throw him into prison. The only 
effective check which the Senate had upon the proceedings of the 
Tribunes was, that one Tribune could put his veto upon the acts 
of his colleagues. Consequently, by securing the support of one 
member of the body, the Senate were able to prevent the other 
Tribunes from* carrying out their plans. 

The Plehisciia enacted by the Tribes had the same force as the 
Leges of the Centuries. J There were thus two sovereign assem- 
blies at Rome, each independent of the other; that of the Tribes, 
as already observed, was tlie most important at the period which 
we have now reached. 

IV. Finances. — The ordinary expenditure of the Roman state 
was not large. All the magistrates discharged their duties with- 
out pay ; and the allied troops, which formed so large a portion of 
a Roman army, were maintained by the allies themselves. The 
expenses of war were defrayed by a property-tax called Trihutum, 
which was usually one in a thousand, or one tenth per cent., but 
after the last war with Macedonia the treasury received such large 
sums from the provinces that the tributum was abolished. From 
this time the expenses of the state were almost entirely defrayed 
by the taxes levied in the provinces. The other revenues of the 
state, which bore the general name of Vectiyalia, may be dismissed 

* The technical word for this appeal was Provocatio. The word A2)pellatin sipr- 
nified an appeal from one niagiatrate to another. t See p. ol. t See p. 40. 



122 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XVn. 

with a few words. They consisted of the rents arising from the 
public lands, of the customs' duties, of the taxes upon mines, 
salt, etc. 

V. The Army. — The Roman army was originally called Legio; 
and this name, which is coeval with the foundation of Rome, con- 
tinued down to the latest times. The Legion was therefore not 
equivalent to what we call a regiment, inasmuch as it contained 
troops of all arms, infantry, cavalry, and, v^^hen military engines 
were extensively employed, artillery also. The number of soldiers 
who, at different periods, Avere contained in a legion, does not ap- 
pear to have been absolutely fixed, but to have vai'ied within mod- 
erate limits. Under Romulus the legion contained 3000 foot-sol- 
diers. From the expulsion of the Kings until the second year of 
the Second Punic War the regular number may be fixed at 4000 
or 4200 infantry. From the latter period until the consulship of 
Marius the ordinary number was from 5000 to 5200. For some 
centuries after Marius the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, gen- 
erally approaching to the higher limit. Amid all the variations 
with regard to the infantry, 300 horsemen formed the regular com- 
plement of the legion. The organization of the legion differed at 
different periods. 

1. First Period. Servius Tullius. — The legion of SerA'ius is so 
closely connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has already 
been discussed,* and it is only necessary to state hefe that it was a 
phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the front ranks being fur- 
nished with a complete suit of armor, their weapons being long 
spears, and their chief defense the round Argolic shield (clipeus). 

2. Second Period. The Great Latin War, B.C. 340. — The legion 
in B.C. 340 had almost entirely discai'ded the tactics of the phalanx. 
It was now drawn up in three, or perhaps we ought to say, in five 
lines. The soldiers of the first line, called Hastati, consisted of 
youths in the first bloom of manhood, distributed into 15 compa- 
nies or maniples (inanijmli), a moderate space being left between 
each. The maniple contained 60 privates, 2 centurions {centuri- 
ones), and a standard-bearer (vexillarius). The second line, the 
Piincipes, was composed of men in the full vigor of life, divided in 
like manner into 15 maniples, all heavily armed. The two lines 
of the Hastati and Principes taken together amounted to 30 mani- 
ples, and formed the Antepilani. The third line, the Triarii, com- 
posed of tried veterans, was also in 15 divisions, but each of these 
was triple, containing 3 maniples. In these triple maniples the 
veterans, or Triarii proper, formed the front ranks ; immediately be- 

* Spp p. 19. 



Chap. XVIL THE ROMAN ARMY. 123 

hind them stood the Rorarii, inferior in age and prowess, while the 
Accensi, or supernumeraries, less trustworthy^ than either, were 
posted in the extreme rear. \ "1~ xs 

3. Third Period. During the Wars of the younger Scipio. — Un- 
der ordinary circumstances four legions were levied yearly, two 
being assigned to each Consul. It must be observed that a regu- 
lar consular army no longer consisted of Roman legions only, but, 
as Italy became gx-adually subjugated, the various states under the 
dominion of Rome were bound to furnish a contingent, and the 
number of allies usually exceeded that of the citizens. They were, 
however, kept perfectly distinct, both in the camp and in the battle- 
field. 

The men belonging to each legion were separated into four di- 
visions. 1. 1000 of the youngest and poorest were set apart to 
form the Yelites, the light-armed troops or skirmishers of the le- 
gion. 2. 1200 who came next in age (or who were of the same 
age with the preceding, but more wealthy) formed the Hastati. 3. 
1200, consisting of those in the full vigor of manhood, formed the 
Principes. 4. 600 of the oldest and most experienced formed the 
Triarii. When the number of soldiers in the legion exceeded 4000, 
the first three divisions were increased proportionally, but the num- 
ber of the Triarii remained always the same. The Hastati, Prin- 
cipes, and Triarii were each divided into 10 companies, called 
Maniples. The Velites were not divided into companies, but 
were distributed equally among the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii. 
Each maniple was subdivided into two centuries, commanded by a 
centurion. Each legion had six superior officers, called Tribuni 
Militum. The legion was also divided into 10 cohorts ; and as 
the cohorts were all equal to each other, the strength of the cohort 
varied from time to time with the strength of the legion, and thus 
at different periods ranged between the limits of 300 and GOO. 

Three hundred horse-soldiers were apportioned to each legion, 
divided into 10 troops (turmcc), out of which three officers Avere 
chosen named Decuriones. 

The' infantry furnished by the Socri was for the most part equal 
in number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or thrice as 
numerous, and the whole were divided equally between the two 
consular armies. Each Consul named 12 superior officers, who 
were termed Praefecti Sociorum, and corresponded to the Legion- 
ary Tribunes. 

Foin-th Period. From the times of the Gracchi until the doicnfall 
of the Republic.'' — After the times of the Gracchi the following 

* We anticipate the course of events in order to give under one view the his- 
tory of the Roman legion. 



124 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XVII. 

changes in military aflfiiirs may be noticed : In the first consul- 
ship of Marius the legions were thrown open to citizens of all 
grades, without distinction of fortune. The whole of the legion- 
aries were armed and equipped in the same manner, all being no^y 
furnished with the pilum. The legionaries, when in battle-order, 
were no longer arranged in three lines, each consisting of ten 
maniples with an open space between each maniple, but in two 
lines, each consisting of five cohorts, with a space between each 
cohort. The younger soldiers were no longer placed in the front, 
but in reserve, the van being composed of veterans. As a neces- 
sary result of the above arrangements, the distinction between Has- 
tati, Principes, and Triarii ceased to exist. The Velites disappear- 
ed. The skirmishers, included und^r the general term Levis Ar- 
matura, consisted for the most part of foreign mercenaries possess- 
ing peculiar skill in the use of some national weapon, such as the 
Balearic slingers, the Cretan archers {sagittarii), and the Mooi-ish 
dartmen. When operations requiring great activity were under- 
taken, such as could not be performed by mere skirmishers, de- 
tachments of legionaries were lightly equipped, and marched with- 
out baggage for these special services.* The cavalry of the legion 
underwent a change in every respect analogous to that which took 
place with regard to the light-armed troops. The Roman Equites 
attached to the army were very few in number, and were chiefly 
employed as aids-de-camp and on confidential missions. The 
bulk of the cavalry consisted of foreigners, and hence we find the 
legions and the cavalry spoken of as completely distinct from each 
other. After the termination of the Social War, when most of the 
inhabitants of Italy became Roman citizens, the ancient distinc- 
tion between the Legiones and the Socii disappeared, and all who 
had served as Socii became incorporated with the Legiones. 

In the course of the history the Triumphs granted to victorious 
generals have been frequently mentioned, and therefore a brief de- 
sciption of them may appropriately close this sketch of the Roman 
army. A Triumph was a solemn procession, in which a victorious 
general entered the city in a chariot drawn by four horses. He 
was preceded by the captives and spoils taken in war, was followed 
by his troops, and, after passing in state along the Via Sacra, 
ascended the Capitol to offer sacrifice in the Temple of Jupiter. 
Erom the beginning of the Republic down to the extinction of lib- 
erty a Triumph was recognized as the summit of military glory, 
and was the cherished object of ambition to every Roman general. 
After any decisive battle had been won, or a province subdued by 

* Hence the frequent occurrence of such phrases as expedite, expediti militesy 
expedilce cohortes^ and even cxjieditce lujiones. 



CHAr. XVII. 



THE ROMAN ARMY. 



125 



a series of successful operations, the general forwarded to the Sen- 
ate a laurel-wreathed dispatch containing an account of his ex- 
ploits. If the intelligence proved satisfactory the Senate decreed 
a public thanksgiving. * After the war was concluded, the general, 
witli his army, repaired to Rome, or ordered Iiis array to meet him 
there on a given day, hut did not enter the city. A meeting of 
the Senate was held without the walls, that he might have an op- 
portunity of urging his pretensions in person, and tliese were then 
scrutinized and discussed with the most jealous care. If the Sen- 
ate gave their consent, they at the same time voted a sum of mon- 
ey toward defraying the necessary expenses, and one of the Trib- 
unes applied for a plebiscitum to permit the Imperator to retain 
his imperium on the day when he entered the city. This last form 
could not be dispensed with, because the imperium conferred by 
the Comitia did not include the city itself; and accordingly the 
military power of the general ceased as soon as he re-entered the 
gates, unless the general law had been previously suspended by a 
special enactment. 

* Called Supplicatio. 




A Roman general addressing the soldiers. (From a Coin.) 




Scipio Africauus. 



CHAPTEK XVIII. 



INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME DURING THE MACEDONIAN AND 
SYRIAN WARS. CATO AND SCIPIO. 

The conquests of the Eomans in the East had exercised a most 
pernicious influence upon the national character. They were orig- 
inally a hardy, industrious, and religious race, distinguished by un- 
bending integrity and love of order. They lived with great frugal- 
ity upon their small farms, which they cultivated with their own 
hands ; but they were stern and somewhat cruel, and cared little 
or nothing for literature and the arts. Upon such a people the 
sudden acquisition of wealth produced its natural effects. They 
employed it in the gratification of their appetites, and in coarse 
sensual pleasures. Some of the Roman nobles, such as Scipio Af- 
ricanus, Fiamininus (the conqueror of Philip), and others, acquired 
a love for Greek literature and art; but the great mass of the na- 
tion imitated only the vices of the Greeks. Cooks, who had for- 
merly been the cheapest kind of slaves at Rome, now became the 
most valuable. A love of luxury and a general depravity gradu- 
ally spread through all classes of society. A striking instance of 
the growing licentiousness of the times was brought to light in 
B.C. 186. It was discovered that the worship of Bacchus had been 
introduced from Southern Italv into Rome and other towns, and 



CuAr.XVllI. INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME. 127 

that secret societies were formed, which, under the cloak of this 
worship, indulged in the most abominable vices. A stringent in- 
quiry was made into these practices ; the most guilty were put to 
death ; and a decree of the Senate was passed, forbidding the wor- 
ship of Bacchus in Rome and throughout Italy. 

Another circumstance will illustrate the manners of the times. 
L. Flamininus, the brother of the conqueror of Philip, and Consul 
in B.C. 192, took Avith him into Cisalpine Gaul a beautiful Cartha- 
ginian boy, to whom he was attached. The youth complained of 
leaving Rome just before the exhibition of the games of the gladi- 
ators. Shortly after reaching the province, when Flamininus was 
feasting with his favorite, a Boian chief came into the Consul's tent 
to implore his protection. Flamininus seized this opportunity to 
please the boy, and, telling him that he should be rewarded for not 
seeing the gladiators, he ordered an attendant' to stab the Gaul, 
that his favorite might enjoy the dying agonies of the man. 

The increasing love of gladiatorial combats was another indica- 
tion of the national character. These brutalizing sports are said 
to have taken their origin from the Etruscans, who were accustom- 
ed to kill slaves and captives at the funerals of their relatives. 
They were first exhibited at Rome in the beginning of the First 
Funic War (b.c. 264). At first confined to funerals, they were aft- 
erward exhibited by the ^diles at the public games, with the view 
of pleasing the people. The passion for tliis brutalizing amusement 
rose to a great height toward the end of the Republic and under 
the Empire. Great pains were taken with the training of gladi- 
ators, Avho w£re divided into dilFerent classes according to their 
arms and modes of fighting. 

Among many other important consequences of these foreign 
wars, two exercised an especial influence upon the future fate of 
the Republic. The nobles became enormously rich, and the peas- 
ant proprietors almost entirely disappeared. The wealthy nobles 
now combined together to keep in their own families the public 
offices of the state, which afforded the means of making such enor- 
mous fortunes. Thus a new Nobility was formed, resting on wealth, 
and composed alike of plebeian and patrician families. Every one 
whose ancestry had not held any of the curule magistracies* was 
called a New Man, and was branded as an upstart.f It became 

* Fee p. 117. 

t The K<^bHeft vrere distinguished from the Tgnohiles. The outward distinction 
of the forraei" Avas the Jvs Irnapinum. These Imagines •were figures witli paint- 
ed masks of wax, representing the ancestors wlio liad held any of the curule mag- 
istracies. They were placed in cases in the atrium or ■reception-hall of the 
house, and were carried in the funeral procession of a member of the family. 
Any one who first obtained a curule magistracy became the founder of the nobil- 



128 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XVIII. 

more and more difficult for a New Man to rise to office, and the 
Nobles were thus almost an hereditary aristocracy in the exclusive 
possession of the government. The wealth they had acquired in 
foreign commands enabled them not only to incur a prodigious ex- 
pense in the celebration of the public games in their sedileship, 
with the view of gaining the votes of the people at future elections, 
but also to spend large sums of money in the actual purchase of 
votes. The first law against bribery* was passed in B.C. 181, a 
sure proof of the growth of the practice. 

The decay of the peasant proprietors was an inevitable conse- 
quence of these frequent and long-protracted wars. In the earlier 
times the citizen-soldier, after a few weeks' campaign, returned 
home to cultivate his land ; but this became impossible when wars 
were carried on out of Italy. Moreover, the soldier, easily obtain- 
ing abundance of booty, found life in the camp m^re pleasant 
than the cultivation of the ground. He was thus as ready to sell 
his land as the nobles were anxious to buy it. But money acquired 
by plunder is soon squandered. The soldier, returning to Rome, 
swelled the ranks of the poor ; and thus, while the nobles became 
richer and richer, the lower classes became poorer and poorer. In 
consequence of the institution of slavery there was little or no de- 
mand for free labor, and as prisoners taken in war were sold as 
slaves, the slave-market was always well supplied. The estates of 
the wealthy were cultivated by large gangs of slaves ; and even the 
mechanical arts, which give employment to such large numbers in 
the modern towns of Europe, were practiced by slaves, whom their 
masters had trained for the purpose. The poor at Rome were thus 
left almost without resources ; their votes in the popular assembly 
were nearly the only thing they could turn into money, and it is 
therefore not surprising that they were ready to sell them to the 
highest bidder. 

Many distinguished men saw with deep regret the old Roman 
virtues disappearing, and strove vigorously against these corrup- 
tions of the national character. Of this party the most conspicu- 
ous member was M. Porcius Cato, who may be taken as a type of 
the old Roman character. He was born at Tusculum in B.C. 23-1. 
When a young man, the death of his father put him in possession 
of a small hereditary estate in the Sabine territory, at a distance 
from his native town. It was here that he passed the greater part 
of his boyhood, hardening his body by healthful exercise, and su- 

ity of his family. Such a person was himself neither a NoMlis nor an Ignohilis. 
He was termed a Novtia Homo^ or a new man. 

* The Latin word for bribery is ambitus^ literally canvassing. It must not he 
confounded with repctundce, the offense of extortion or pecuniary corruption 
committed by magistrates in the provinces or at Itome, 



B.C. 234-191. M. PORCIUS CATO. 129 

perintending and sharing the operations of the farm. Near his es- 
tate was an humble cottage, which had been tenanted, after three 
triumphs, by its owner M.Curius Dentatus, whose warlike exploits 
and simple character were often talked of with admiration in the 
neighborhood. The ardor of the youthful Cato was kindled. He 
resolved to imitate the character, and hoped to rival the glory, of 
Dentatus. Opportunity was not wanting. He took his first mili- 
tary lessons in the campaigns against Hannibal, and gained the fa- 
vor and friendship of Fabius Maximus. He was also patronized 
by L.Valerius Flaccus, a Roman noble in his neighborhood, and 
a warm supporter of the old Roman manners, who had observed 
Cato's eloquence, as well as his martial spirit. Encouraged by Fa- 
bius and Flaccus, Cato became a candidate for office, and was elect- 
ed Qusestor in B.C. 204. He followed P. Scipio Africanus to Sici- 
ly, but there was not that cordiality of co-operation between Cato 
and Scipio which ought to subsist between a Qusestor and his Pro- 
consul. Fabius had opposed the permission given to Scipio to car- 
ry the attack into the enemy's home, and Cato, whose appointment 
was intended to operate as a check upon Scipio, adopted the views 
of his friend. Cato was Preetor in Sardinia in B.C. 198, where he 
took the earliest opportunity of illustrating his principles by his 
practice. He diminished official expenses, walked his circuits with 
a single attendant, administered justice with strict impartiality, and 
restrained usury with unsparing severity. He had now established 
a reputation for pure morality and strict old-fashioned virtue. He 
was looked upon as the living type and representative of the ideal 
ancient Roman. To the advancement of such a man opposition 
was vain. In b.c. 195 he was elected Consul with his old friend 
and patron L. Valerius Flaccus. During his consulship a strange 
scene took place peculiarly illustrative of Roman manners. In 
B.C. 215, at the height of the Punic War, a law had been passed, 
proposed by the Tribune Oppins, that no woman should possess 
more than half an ounce of gold, nor wear a garment of divers col- 
ors, nor drive a carriage with horses within a mile of the city, ex- 
cept for the purpose of attending the public celebration of religious 
rites. Now that Hannibal was conquered, and Rome abounded 
with Carthaginian wealth, there being no longer any necessity for 
women to contribute toward the exigencies of an impoverished 
treasury the savings spared from their ornaments and pleasures, 
two Tribunes thought it time to propose the abolition of theOppian 
law ; but they were opposed by two of their colleagues. The most 
important affairs of state excited far less interest and zeal than 
this singular contest. The matrons blockaded every avenue to the 
forum, and intercepted their husbands as they approached, beseech- 

I 



130 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XVIII. 

ing them to restore the ancient ornaments of the Roman matrons. 
Even Flaccus wavered, but his colleague Cato was inexorable. Fi- 
nally, the women carried the day. Worn out by their importunity, 
the two Tribunes withdrew their opposition, and the hated law was 
abolished by the suffrage of all the tribes. 

Cato's campaign in Spain during his Consulship, which added 
greatly to his military reputation, has been already related. He 
afterward served in Greece under M. Glabrio, where he distinguish- 
ed himself at the battle of Thermopyk^ fought against Antiochus 
(B.C. 191). 

The victory of Zama had made P. Scipio Africanus the first man 
in the Republic, and for a time silenced all his enemies. But the 
party of Fabius still cherished their old animosity against him, and 
Cato inherited the hatred of his friend and patron. After the re- 
turn of P. Scipio and his brother Lucius from the war against An- 
tiochus, they were charged with having been bribed to let off the 
Syrian monarch too leniently, and of having appropriated to their 
own use a portion of the money which had been paid by Antiochus 
to the Roman state. The first blow was directed against Lucius 
Scipio. At the instigation of Cato, the two Petillii Tribunes of 
the people required Lucius to render an account of all sums of 
money which he had received from Antiochus. Lucius according- 
ly prepared his accounts ; but, as he was in the act of delivering 
them up, the proud conqueror of Hannibal indignantly snatched 
them out of his hands, and tore them in pieces, saying " it was un- 
worthy to call to account for a few thousands a man who had paid 
millions into the treasury." But this haughty conduct appears to 
have produced an unfavorable impression, and his brother, when 
brought to trial in the course of the same year, was declared guilty, 
and sentenced to pay a heavy fine. The Tribune ordered him to 
be dragged to prison, and there detained till the money was paid ; 
whereupon Africanus, still more enraged at this fresh insult to his 
family, and setting himself above the laws, rescued his brother 
from the hands of the Tribune's officer. The contest would proba- 
bly have been attended with fatal results had not Tib. Gracchus, 
the father of the celebi-ated Tribune, and then Tribune himself, had 
the prudence, although he disapproved of the violent conduct of 
Africanus, to release his brother Lucius from the sentence of im- 
prisonment. 

The successful issue of the prosecution of Lucius emboldened 
his enemies to bring the great Africanus himself before the people. 
His accuser was the Tribune M. Nsevius. When the trial came 
on, Scipio did not condescend to say a single word in refutation of 
the charges that had been brought against him, but descanted long 



B.C. 183. P. SCIPIO AFRICANUS. 131 

and eloquently upon the signal services he had rendered to the 
commonwealth. Having spoken till nightfall, the trial was ad- 
journed till the following day. Early next morning, when the 
Tribunes had taken their seats on the rostra, and Africanus was 
summoned, he proudly reminded the people that this was the an- 
niversary of the day on which he had defeated Hannibal at Zama, 
and called upon them to neglect all disputes and lawsuits, and fol- 
low him to the Capitol, there to return thanks to the immortal 
gods, and pray that they would grant the Roman state other citi- 
zens like himself. Scipio struck a chord which vibrated in every 
heart ; their veneration for the hero returned ; and he was followed 
by such crowds to the Capitol that the Tribunes were left alone in 
the rostra. Having thus set all the laws at defiance, Scipio imme- 
diately quitted Rome, and retired to his countiy seat at Liternum. 
The Tribunes wished to renew the prosecution, but Gracchus wise- 
ly persuaded them to let it drop. Scipio never returned to Rome. 
He would neither submit to the laws, nor aspire to the sovereignty 
of the state, and he therefore resolved to expatriate himself for- 
ever. He passed his remaining days in the cultivation of his es- 
tate at Liternum, and at his death is said to have requested that 
his body might be buried there, and not in his ungrateful country 
(B.C. 183). 

Hannibal perished in the same year as his great opponent. 
Scipio was the only member of the Senate Avho opposed the un- 
worthy persecution which the Romans employed against their once 
dreaded foe. Each of these great men, possessing true nobility of 
soul, could appreciate the other's merits. A story is told that 
Scipio was one of the embassadors sent to Antiochus at Ephesus, 
at whose court Hannibal was then residing, and that he there had 
an interview with the great Carthaginian, who declared him the 
greatest general that ever lived. The compliment was paid in a 
manner the most flattering to Scipio. The latter had asked, " Who 
was the greatest general?" " Alexander the Great," was Hanni- 
bal's reply. " Who was the second ?" "Pyrrhus." "Who was 
the third ?" " Myself," replied the Carthaginian. " What would 
you have said, then, if you had conquered me?" asked Scipio, in 
astonishment. " I should then have placed myself above Alexan- 
der, Pyrrhus, and all other generals." 

After the defeat of Antiochus, Hannibal, as we have already 
seen, took up his abode with Prusias, king of Bithynia, and there 
found for some years a secure asyhim. But the Romans could 
not be at ease so long as Hannibal lived, and T. Flamininus was 
at length dispatched to the court of Prusias to demand the surren- 
der of the fugitive. Tlie Bitliynian king was unable to resist ; but 



132 HISTOKY OF ROME. Chap. XVIU. 

Hannibal, who had long been in expectation of such an event, took 
poison to avoid falling into the hands of his implacable foes. 

We now return to Cato, whose Censorship (b.c. 184) was a great 
epoch in his life. He applied himself strenuously to the duties of 
his office, regardless of the enemies he was making. He repaired 
the water-courses, paved the reservoirs, cleansed the drains, raised 
the rents paid by the publicani for farming the taxes, and dimin- 
ished the contract-prices disbursed by the state to the undertakers 
of public works. There can be no doubt that great abuses existed 
in the management of the public finances, with which nothing but 
the undaunted courage and administrative abilities of Cato could 
have successfully grappled. He was disturbing a nest of hornets, 
and all his future life was troubled by their buzz, and their at- 
tempts to sting. But, though he was accused no fewer than forty- 
four times during the course of his life, it was only once that his 
enemies prevailed against him. His enactments agaist luxury 
were severe and stringent. He levied a heavy tax upon expensive 
slaves and costly furniture and dress. He justly degraded from 
the Senate L. Flamininus for the act of abominable cruelly in Gaul 
which has been already narrated.* 

The strong national prejudices of Cato appear to have diminish- 
ed in force as he grew older and wiser. He applied himself in old 
age to the study of Greek literature, with which in youth he had 
no acquaintance, although he was not ignorant of the Greek lan- 
guage. Himself an historian and orator, the excellences of De- 
mosthenes and Thucydides made a deep impression upon his kin- 
dred mind. But throughout life his conduct was guided by preju- 
dices against classes and nations whose influence he deemed to be 
hostile to the simplicity of the old Eoman character. When Eu- 
menes, king of Pergamns, visited Rome after the war with Antio- 
chus, and was received with honor by the Senate, and splendidly 
entertained by the nobles, Cato was indignant at the respect paid 
to the monarch, refused to go near him, and declared that "kings 
were naturally carnivorous animals." He had an antipathy to 
physicians, because they were mostly Greeks, and therefore unfit 
to be trusted with Roman lives. He loudly cautioned his eldest 
son against them, and dispensed Avith their attendance. When 
Athens sent three celebrated philosophers, Carneades, Diogenes, 
and Critolaus, to Rome, in order to negotiate a remission of the 500 
talents which the Athenians had been awarded to pay to the Oro- 
pians, Carneades excited great attention by his philosophical con- 
versation and lectures, in which he preached the pernicious doctrine 
of an expediency distinct from justice, which he illustrated by the 
* See p. 127. 



B.C. 184. M. PORCIUS CATO. 133 

example of Rome herself: "If Rome were stripped of all that she 
did not justly gain, the Romans might go back to their huts." Cato, 
offended with his principles, and jealous of the attention paid to the 
Greek, gave advice which the Senate followed: "Let these depu- 
ties have an answer, and a polite dismissal as soon as possible." 

Cato was an unfeeling and cruel master. His conduct toward 
his slaves was detestable. The law held them to be mere chattels, 
and he treated them as such, without any regard to the rights of 
humanity. After supper he often severely chastised them, thong 
in liand, for trifling acts of negligence, and sometimes condemned 
them to death. When they were worn out, or useless, he sold 
them, or turned them out of doors. He treated the lower animals 
no better. His war-horse, which bore him through his campaign 
in Spain, he sold before he left the country, that the state might 
not be charged with the expenses of its transport. As years ad- 
vanced he sought gain with increasing eagerness, but never at- 
tempted to profit by the misuse of his public functions. He ac- 
cepted no bribes ; he reserved no booty to his own use ; but he 
became a speculator, not only in slaves, but in buildings, artificial 
waters, and pleasure-grounds. In this, as in other points, he was 
a representative of the old Romans, who were a money-getting and 
money-loving people. 




Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian Bridges. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACHAEAN, AND THIRD PUNIC WARS. 
B.C. 179-146. 

In B.C. 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his son Perseus, 
the last monarch of Macedonia. The latter years of the reign of 
Philip had been spent in preparations for a renewal of the war, 
which he foresaw to be inevitable ; and when Perseus ascended the 
throne, he found himself amply provided with men and money for 
the impending contest. But, whether from a sincere desire of 
peace, or from in-esolution of character, he sought to avert an open 
rupture as long as possible, and one of the first acts of his reign 
was to obtain from the Romans a renewal of the treaty which they 
had concluded with his father. It is probable that neither party 
was sincere in the conclusion of this peace, at least neither could 
entertain any hope of its duration ; yet a period of seven years 
elapsed before the mutual enmity of the two powers broke out into 
open hostilities. Meanwhile, Perseus was not idle ; he secured the 
attachment of his subjects by equitable and popular measures, and 
formed alliances not only with the Greeks and the Asiatic princes, 
but also with the Thracian, Illyrian, and Celtic tribes which sur- 



B.C.171-1G7. MACEDONIAN WAR. 135 

rounded his dominions. The Romans naturally viewed these pro- 
ceedings with jealousy and suspicion ; and at length, in 172, Per- 
seus was formally accused before the Roman Senate by Eumenes, 
king of Pergamus, in person, of entertaining hostile designs against 
the Roman power. The murder of Eumenes near Delphi, on his 
return homeward, of which Perseus was suspected, aggravated the 
feeling against him at Rome, and in the following year war was 
declared. 

Perseus was at the head of a numerous and well-appointed army, 
but of all his allies, only Cotys, king of the Odrysians, ventured to 
support him against so formidable a foe. Yet the war was pro- 
tracted three years without any decisive result ; nay, the balance 
of success seemed on the whole to incline in favor of Perseus, and 
many states, which before were wavering, now showed a disposition 
to join his cause. But his ill-timed parsimony restrained him from 
taking advantage of their otfers, and in B.C. 168 the arrival of the 
Consul L. ^milius Paullus completely changed the aspect of af- 
fairs. Perseus was driven from a strong position which he had 
taken up on the banks of the Enipeus, forced to retreat to Pydna, 
and, finally, to accept an engagement near that town. At first the 
serried ranks of the phalanx seemed to promise superiority ; but 
its order having been broken by the inequalities of the ground, 
the Roman legionaries penetrated the disordered mass, and com- 
mitted fearful carnage, to the extent, it is said, of 20,000 men. 
Perseus fled first to Pella, then to Amphipolis, and finally to the 
sanctuary of the sacred island of Samothrace, but was at length 
obliged to surrender himself to a Roman squadron. He was treat- 
ed wdth courtesj-, but was reserved to adorn the triumph of his con- 
queror. Such was the end of the Macedonian empire. The Sen- 
ate decreed that Macedonia should be divided into four districts, 
each under the jurisdiction of an oligarchical council. 

Before leaving Greece, Paullus was commanded by the Senate 
to inflict a terrible punishment upon tlie Epirotes, because they had 
favored Perseus. Having placed garrisons in the seventy towns of 
Ei^irus, he razed them all to the ground in one day, and carried 
away 150,000 inhabitants as slaves. Epirus never recovered from 
this blow. In the time of Augustus the country was still a scene 
of desolation, and the inhabitants had only ruins and villages to 
dwell in. 

Paullus arrived in Italy toward the close of B.C. 167. The booty 
which he brought with him from Macedonia, and which he paid 
into the Roman treasury, was of enoi'mous value ; and his triumph, 
which lasted three days, was the most splendid that Rome had yet 
seen. Before his triumphal car walked the captive monarch of 



136 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XIX. 

Macedonia, and behind it, on horseback, were his two eldest sons, 
Q. Fabius Maximus, and P. Scipio Africanus the younger, both of 
whom had been ado])ted into other families. ' But his glory was 
darkened by the death of his two younger sons, one dying a few 
days before, and the other a few days after his triumph. 

After the triumph Perseus was thrown into a dungeon, but, in 
consequence of the intercession of Paullus, he was released, and 
permitted to end his days in an honorable captivity at Pella. His 
son Alexander learned the Latin language, and became a public 
clerk at Rome. 

The fall of the Macedonian monarchy made Rome the real mis- 
tress of the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The most 
haughty monarchs trembled before the Republic. Antiochus Epiph- 
anes had invaded Egypt, and was marching upon Alexandria, when 
he was met by three Roman commissioners, who presented him 
with a decree of the Senate, commanding him to abstain from hos- 
tilities against Egypt. The king, having read the decree, prom- 
ised to take it into consideration with his friends, whereupon Po- 
pillius, one of the Roman commissioners, stepping forward, drew a 
circle round the king with his staff, and told him that he should 
not stir out of it till he had given a decisive answer. The king 
was so frightened by this boldness that he immediately promised 
to withdraw his troops. Eumenes, king of Pergamus, whose con- 
duct during the war with Perseus had excited the suspicion of the 
Senate, hastened to make his submission in person, but was not al- 
lowed to enter Rome. Prusias, king of Bithynia, had the mean- 
ness to appear at Rome with his head shaven, and in the dress of 
a liberated slave. The Rhodians, who had offered their mediation 
during the war with Perseus, were deprived of Lycia and Caria. 
In Greece itself the Senate acted in the same arbitrary manner. 
It was evident that they meant to bring the whole country under 
their sway. In these views they were assisted by various despots 
and traitors in the Grecian cities, and especially by Callicrates, a 
man of great influence among the Acheeans, who for many years 
had lent himself as the base tool of the Romans. He now de- 
nounced more than a thousand Achgeans as having favored the 
cause of Perseus. Among them were the historian Polybius, and 
the most distinguished men in every city of the League. They 
were all apprehended and sent to Italy, where they were distrib- 
uted among the cities of Etruria, without being brought to trial. 
Polybius alone was allowed to reside at Rome in the house of -Emil- 
ias Paullus, where he became the intimate friend of his son Scipio 
Africanus the younger. The Acheean League continued to exist, 
but it was really subject to Callicrates. The Achaan exiles Ian- 



B.C. U7-146. ACHAEAN WAR. 137 

guished in confinement for seventeen years. Their request to be 
allowed to return to their native land had been more than once 
refused ; but the younger Scipio Africanus at length interceded on 
their behalf, and prevailed upon Cato to advocate their return. 
The conduct of the aged Senator was kinder than his words. He 
did not interpose till the end of a long debate, and then simply 
asked, "Have we nothing better to do than to sit here all day long 
debating whether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be carried to 
their graves hei'e or in Achaia?" A decree of the Senate gave the 
exiles permission to return ; but, when Polybius was anxious to ob- 
tain from the Senate restoration to their former honors, Cato bade 
him, with a smile, beware of returning to the Cyclops' den to fetch 
away any trifles he had left behind him. 

The Achaean exiles, whose numbers were now reduced from 
1000 to 300, landed in Greece (b.c. 151) with feelings exasperated 
by their long confinement, and ready to indulge in any rash enter- 
prise against Rome. Polybius, who had returned with the other 
exiles, in vain exhorted them to peace and unanimity, and to avoid 
a hopeless struggle with the Roman power. Shortly afterward 
an adventurer laid claim to the throne of Macedonia (b.c. 149). 
He was a man of low origin called Andriscus, but he pretended 
to be the son of Perseus, and assumed the name of Philippus. At 
first he met with some success, and defeated the Roman Praetor 
Juventius, but, after reigning scarcely a year, he was conquered 
and taken prisoner by Q. Metellus. 

The temporary success of Andriscus had encouraged the war- 
party in the Acheean League. Polybius had quitted the country 
to join his friend Scipio in Africa ; and Diseus and Critolaiis, the 
most violent enemies of Rome, had now undisputed sway in the 
League. Diseus incited the Achseans to attack Sparta, on the 
ground that, instead of appealing to the League respecting a 
boundary question, as they ought to have done, they had violated 
its laws by sending a private embassy to Rome. The Spartans, 
feeling themselves incompetent to resist this attack, appealed to 
the Romans for assistance ; and in b.c. 147 two Roman commis- 
sioners were sent to Greece to settle these disputes. The com- 
missioners decided that not only Sparta, but Corinth, and all the 
other cities, except those of Achaia, should be restored to inde- 
pendence. Their decision occasioned serious riots at Corinth. 
All the Spartans in the town were seized, and even the Roman 
commissioners narrowly escaped violence. On their return to 
Rome a fresh embassy was dispatched to demand satisfaction for 
these outrages. But the violent and impolitic conduct of Crito- 
laus, then Strategus of the League, rendered all attempts at accom- 



138 HISTORY OE ROME. Chap. XIX. 

modation fruitless, and, after the return of the embassadors, the 
Senate declared war against the League. The cowardice and in- 
competence of Critolaiis as a general were only equaled by his 
previous insolence. On the approach of the Romans from Mace- 
donia under Metellus he did not even venture to make a stand at 
Thermopylae ; and, being overtaken by them near Scarphea, in Lo- 
cris, he was totally defeated, and never again heard of. Diseus, 
who succeeded him as Strategus, displayed rather more energy and 
courage, and made preparations to defend Corinth. Metellus had 
hoped to have had the honor of bringing the war to a conclusion, 
and had almost reached Corinth, when the Consul L. Mummius 
landed on the Isthmus and assumed the command. The struggle 
was soon brought to a close. DiiBus was defeated in battle ; and 
Corinth was immediately evacuated, not only by the troops of the 
League, but also by the greater part of the inhabitants. On enter- 
ing the city, Mummius put to the sword the few males who remain- 
ed, sold the women and children as slaves, and, having carried 
away all its treasures, consigned it to the flames (b.c. l-iG). Cor- 
inth was filled with masterpieces of ancient art ; but Mummius was 
so insensible to their surpassing excellence as to stipulate with 
those who contracted to convey them to Italy that, if any were lost 
in the passage, they should be replaced by others of equal value ! 
Mummius then employed himself in chastising and regulating the 
whole of Greece ; and ten commissioners were sent from Rome to 
settle its future condition. The whole country, to the borders of 
Macedonia and Epirus, was formed into a Roman province, under 
the name of Achaia, derived from that confederacy which had made 
the last struggle for political existence. The Roman commission- 
ers then proceeded northward, and also formed Macedonia into a 
province. Polybius, who had hastened to Greece immediately after 
the capture of Corinth, exerted all his influence to alleviate the 
misfortunes of his countrymen, and to procure for them favorable 
terms. As a friend of Scipio he w^as received by the Roman com- 
missioners with great distinction, and obtained from them a relax- 
ation of some of the most severe enactments which had been made 
against the Achaeans. 

Metellus and Mummius both triumphed on their return to Rome, 
the former taking the surname of Macedonicus, the latter that of 
Achaicus. 

Carthage, so long the rival of Rome, had fallen in the same year 
as Corinth. The reforms introduced by Hannibal after the battle 
of Zama had restored some degree of prosperity to the state ; and, 
though the Roman party obtained the supi'emacy after he had been 
compelled to fly to Antiochus, the commercial activity of the Car- 



B.C. 150. THIRD PUNIC WAR. 139 

thaginians restored to the city much of its former influence. Rome 
looked with a jealous eye upon its reviving power, and encouraged 
Masinissa to make repeated aggressions upon its territory. At 
length the popular party, having obtained more weight in the gov- 
ernment, made a stand against these repeated encroachments of 
Masinissa. Thereupon Cato recommended an instant declaration 
of war against Carthage ; but this met with considerable opposition 
in the Senate, and it was at length arranged that an embassy should 
be sent to Africa to gain information as to the real state of affairs. 
The ten embassadors, of whom Cato was the chief, offered their 
arbitration, which was accepted by Masinissa, but rejected by the 
Carthaginians, who had no confidence in Roman justice. The 
deputies accurately observed the warlike preparations and the de- 
fenses of the frontier. They then entered the city, and saw the 
strength and population it had acquired since the Second Punic 
"War. Upon their return Cato was the foremost in asserting that 
Rome would never be safe as long as Carthage was so powerful, so 
hostile, and so near. One da}' he drew a bunch of early ripe figs 
from beneath his robe, and, throwing it upon the floor of the Sen- 
ate-house, said to the assembled fathers, who were astonished at 
the freshness and fineness of the fruit, "Those figs were gathered 
but three days ago at Carthage ; so close is our enemy to our 
walls." From that time forth, whenever he was called upon for 
his vote in the Senate, though the subject of debate bore no rela- 
tion to Carthage, his words were, "Delenda est Carthago, "" Car-' 
thage must be destroyed."* 

Cato's opinion prevailed, and the Senate only waited for a favor- 
able opportunity to destroy the city. This soon occurred. The 
popular pai'ty having driven into exile the powerful partisans of 
Masinissa, the old Numidian king invaded the Carthaginian terri- 
tory, and defeated tlie army which had been raised to oppose him 
(B.C. 150). This led to a change in the government, and the aris- 
tocratical party, once more restored to power, hastened to make 
their submission to Rome. But the Romans had resolved upon 
war, and, when the Carthaginian embassadors arrived at Rome, 
the two Consuls were already levying troops. The embassadors, 
knowing that resistance was hopeless, sought to appease the anger 
of the Senate by unconditional obedience. They were ordered to 
send 300 youths of the noblest families to meet the Consuls at 
Lilyba3um, and were told that the Consuls would acquaint them 
with the farther orders of the Senate. At Lilybseum the Consuls 

* This story must appear strange to those who know not that it was a custom 
for Roman Senators, whon calLd upon for their vote, to express — no matter what 
the question — any opinion which they deemed of great importance to the welfare 
of the state. 



140 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XIX. 

found the hostages awaiting them, and then promised the Car- 
thaginian envoys that the decision of the Senate should be an- 
nounced to them in Africa. Upon reaching Utica, which surren- 
dered to them in despair, the Consuls informed the Carthaginians 
that, as their state would henceforth be under the protection of 
Rome, they had no longer any occasion for arms, and must sur- 
render all the munitions of war. Even this demand was complied 
with, and the Roman commissioners Avho were sent to Carthage 
brought to the Roman camp 200,000 stand of arms, and 2000 cata- 
pults. The Consuls, thinking that the state was now defenseless, 
threw off the mask, and announced the final resolution of the Sen- 
ate: "That Carthage must be destroyed, and that its inhabitants 
must build another city ten miles distant from the coast." When 
this terrible news reached Carthage, despair and rage seized all 
the citizens. They resolved to perish rather than submit to so per- 
fidious a foe. All the Italians within the walls were massacred ; 
the members of the former government took to flight, and the pop- 
ular party once more obtained the power. Almost superhuman ef- 
forts were made to obtain means of defense ; corn was collected 
from every quarter ; arms were manufactured day and night ; the 
women cut off their long hair to be made into strings for the cata- 
pults, and the whole city became one vast work-shop. The Con- 
suls now saw that it would be necessary to have recourse to force ; 
but they had no military ability, and their attacks were repulsed 
with great loss. The younger Scipio Africanus, who was then 
serving in the army as military tribune, dis])layed great bravery 
and military skill, and, on one occasion, saved the army from de- 
struction. Still no permanent success was gained, and Scipio re- 
turned to Rome, accompanied by the prayers of the soldiers that 
he would come back as their commander. In the following year 
(B.C. 148) the new Consul L. Calpurnius Piso was even less suc- 
cessful than his predecessors. The soldiers became discontented ; 
the Roman Senate and people, who had anticipated an easy con- 
quest, were indignant at their disappointment, and all eyes were 
turned to Scipio. Accordingly, when he became a candidate for 
the sedileship for the ensuing year (b.c. 147), he was unanimously 
elected Consul, though he was only thirty-seven years old, and had 
not, therefore, attained the legal age for the office. 

This remarkable man was, as we have already said, the son of 
L. ^milius Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia. He was adopt- 
ed by P. Scipio, the son of the great Africanus, and is therefore 
called Scipio Africanus Minor, to distinguish him from his grand- 
father by adoption. To these names that of ^milianus is some- 
times added to mark the family of his birth, so that his full desig- 



B.C. 147. DESTKUCTION OF CARTHAGE. 



141 



nation was P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus iEmilianus. His intima- 
cy with the historian Polybius has been ah-eady mentioned. He 
appears from his earliest years to have devoted himself witli ardor 
to the study of literature ; and he eagerly aA^ailed himself of the 
superior knowledge of Polybius to direct him in his literary pur- 
suits. He was accompanied by the Greek historian in almost all 
his campaigns, and, in the midst of his most active military duties, 
lost no opportunity of enlarging his knowledge of Greek literature 
and philosophy by constant intercourse with his friend. Nor did 
he neglect the literature of his own country, for Terence was ad- 
mitted to his intimacy, and he is even said to have assisted him 
in the composition of his comedies. His friendship with Leelius, 
whose tastes and pursuits were so congenial to his own, has been 
immortalized by Cicero's celebrated treatise "On Friendship." 
Scipio landed in Africa in b.c. 147. His first step was to restore 




A. Inner Port. 

B. Outer Port. 



Plan of Carthage. 

C. Outlet to Sea. I 

D. Scipio's Mole. | 



E. New Outlet to Sea, cut by 
the Carthaginians. 



142 HISTORY OF ROME. Chai'. XIX. 

discipline to the army. He next took by storm Megara, a suburb 
of Carthage, and then proceeded to construct a work across the 
entrance of the harbor to cut off the city from all supplies by sea. 
But the Carthaginians defended themselves with a courage and an 
energy rarely paralleled in history. "While Scipio was engaged in 
this laborious task, they built a fleet of fifty ships in their inner 
port, and cut a new channel communicating with the sea. Hence, 
when Scipio at length succeeded in blocking up the entrance of the 
harbor, he found all his labor useless,^s the Carthaginians sailed 
out to sea by the new outlet. But this fleet was destroyed after an 
obstinate engagement which lasted three days. At length, in the 
following year (b.c. 146), Scipio had made all his preparations for 
the final assault. The Carthaginians defended themselves with 
the courage of despair. They fought from street to street, and 
from house to house, and the work of destruction and butchery 
went on for six days. The fate of this once magnificent city moved 
Scipio to tears ; and, anticipating that a similar catastrophe might 
one day befall Rome, he is said to have repeated the lines of the 
Iliad over the flames of Carthage: "The day shall come when 
sacred Troy shall perish, and Priam and his people shall be slain." 

Scipio returned to Rome in the same year, and celebrated a 
splendid triumph on account of his victory. The surname of Af- 
ricanus, which he had inherited by adoption, had now been ac- 
quired by his own exploits. 

A portion of the dominions of Carthage was assigned to Utica. 
The remainder was formed into a Roman province under the name 
of Africa. Carthage itself was leveled to the ground, and a curse 
pronounced upon any who should rebuild the city. C. Gracchus, 
however, only twenty-four years afterward, attempted to found a 
new city upon the ancient site under the name of Junonia ; but 
evil prodigies at its foundation, and the subsequent death of Grac- 
chus, interrupted this design. The project was revived by Julius 
Csesar, and was carried into effect by Augustus ; and Roman Car- 
thage, built at a short distance from the former city, became the 
capital of Africa, and one of the most flourishing cities in the an- 
cient world. In the fifth century it was taken by Genseric, and 
made the capital of the Vandal kingdom in Africa. It was re- 
taken by Belisarius, but was finally captured and destroyed by the 
Arabs in a.d. 647. Its site is now desolate, juarked only by a few 




Personification of the Eiver Tiber. 



CHAPTER XX. 

SPANISH WARS, B.C. 153-133. FIRST SERVILE WAR, B.C. 134-132. 

The generous policy of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus in b.c. 179* 
had secured for Spain a long period of tranquillity. But in b.c. 
153, the inhabitants of Segeda having commenced rebuilding the 
walls of their town, which was forbidden by one of the articles in 
the treaty of Gracchus, a new war broke out, which lasted for many 
years. The Celtiberians in general espoused the cause of Segeda, 
and the Consul Q. Fabius Nobilior made an unsuccessful campaign 
against them. His successor, the Consul M. Claudius Marcellus, 
grandson of the Marcellus who was celebrated in the Second Punic 
War, carried on the Avar with vigor, and concluded a peace with the 
enemy on A-ery foir terms (b.c. 152). The Consul of the following 
year, L. Lucinius Lucullus, finding the Celtiberians at peace, turned 
his arms against the Vaccrei, Cantabri, and other nations as yet un- 
known to the Romans. At the same time the Praetor Ser. Sulpic- 
ius Galba invaded Lusitania, but, though he met with some advan- 
tage at first, he Avas subsequently defeated with great loss, and es- 
caped Avith only a fcAV horsemen. In the folloAving year (b.c, 150) 
he again in\'aded the country from the south, Avhile Lucullus attack- 
ed it from the north. The Lusitanians therefore sent embassadors 
* See p. 1 15. 



144 HISTOKY OF ROME. Chap. XX. 

to Galba to make their submission. He received them with kind- 
ness, lamented the poverty of their country, and promised to assign 
them more fertile lands, if they would meet him in three bodies, 
with their wives and children, in three places which he fixed upon. 
The simple people believed him. But he meditated one of the 
most atrocious acts of treachery and cruelty recorded in history. 
He fell upon each body separately, and butchered them, men, wom- 
en, and children, without distinction. Among the very few who 
escaped was Viriathus, the future avenger of his nation. Galba 
was brought to trial on his return to Rome on account of this out- 
rage ; and Cato, then in the 85th year of his age, inveighed against 
his treachery and baseness. But Galba was eloquent and wealthy, 
and the liberal employment of his money, together with the com- 
passion excited by his weeping children and ward, obtained his ac- 
quittal. 

Viriathus appears to have been one of those able guerrilla chiefs 
whom Spain has produced at every period of her history. He is 
said to have been first a shepherd and afterward a robber, but he 
soon acquired unbounded influence over the minds of his country- 
men. After the massacre of Galba, those Lusitanians who had not 
left their homes rose as a man against the rule of such treacherous 
tyrants. Viriathus at first avoided all battles in the plains, and 
waged an incessant predatory warfare in the mountains ; and he 
met with such continued good fortune, that numbers flocked to his 
standard. The aspect of affairs seemed at length so threatening 
that in b.c. 145 the Romans determined to send the Consul Q. Fa- 
bius Maximus into the country. In the following year Fabius de- 
feated Viriathus with great loss ; but this success was more than 
counterbalanced by the revolt of the Celtiberians, the bravest and 
most noble-minded of the Spaniards. The war is usually known 
by the name of the Numantine, fiom Numantia, a town on the River 
Douro, and the capital of the Arevaci, the most powerful of the Cel- 
tiberian tribes. 

Henceforward two Roman armies were employed in Spain, one 
in the north against the Celtiberians, and the other in the south 
against Viriathus and the Lusitanians. The war against the Lusi- 
tanians was at first brought to a conclusion. In b.c. 141 Viriathus 
surprised the Proconsul Fabius Servilianus in a narrow pass, where 
escape was impossible. He used his victory with moderation, and 
suff'ered the Romans to depart uninjured, on condition of their al- 
lowing the Lusitanians to retain undisturbed possession of their 
own territory, and recognizing him as a friend and ally of Rome. 
This treaty was ratified by the Roman people ; but the Consul Q. 
Servilius Ccepio, who succeeded Fabius in the command in south- 



B.C. 152-133. WAES IN SPAIN. 145 

em Spain, found some pretext for violating the peace, and renewed 
the war against Viriathus. The latter sent envoys to Capio to pro- 
pose fresh terms of peace ; but the Roman Consul persuaded them, 
by promises of large rewards, to murder their general. On their 
return they assassinated him in his own tent, and made their es- 
cape to the Roman camp before the Lusitanians were aware of the 
death of their chief. But, when the murderers claimed their re- 
ward, the Consul coolly told them that the Romans did not approve 
of the murder of a general by his own soldiers. The Lusitanians 
continued in arms a little longer, but the war virtually terminated 
by the death of Viriathus. Their country was finally reduced to 
subjection by the Consul D. Junius Brutus in B.C. 138, who also 
crossed the rivers Douro and Minho, and received the surname of 
Callaicus in consequence of his receiving the submission of the Cal- 
laici, or Gallseci, a people in the northwest of Spain. 

The war against the Celtiberians was at first conducted with 
success by the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who during his 
Fraetorship had defeated the pretender to the Macedonian throne. 
But the successors of Metellus experienced repeated disasters, and 
at length, in b.c. 187, the Consul C. Hostilius Mancinus, being en- 
tirely surrounded by the Celtiberians, was obliged to sign a peace 
with them, in which he recognized their independence. He only 
obtained these terms on condition that his Quaestor, Tib. Sempro- 
nius Gracchus, who was greatly respected by the Spaniards for his 
father's sake, should become responsible for the execution of the 
treaty. The Senate refused to ratify it, and went through the hyp- 
ocritical ceremony of delivering over Mancinus, bound and naked, 
to the enemy. But the Numantines, like the Samnites in a simi- 
lar case, declined to accept the offering. 

The Numantine war continued in the same disastrous manner to 
the Roman arms, and the people now called upon Scipio Africanus 
to bring it to a conclusion. We have already traced the career of 
this eminent man till the fall of Carthage. In b.c. 142 he was 
Censor with L. Mummius. In the administration of the duties of 
his office he followed in the footsteps of Cato, and attempted to 
repress the growing luxury and immorality of his contemporaries ; 
but his efforts were thwarted by his colleague. He vainly wished 
to check in the people the appetite for foreign conquests ; and in 
the solemn prayer which he offered at the conclusion of the lus- 
trum he changed the usual supplication for the enlargement of the 
Republic into one for its preservation. He was now elected Con- 
sul a second time, and was sent into Spain in b.c. 134. His first 
effijrts were directed, as in Africa, to the restoration of discipline 
in the army, which had become disorganized and demoralized by 

K 



146 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XX. 

every kind of indulgence. Two remarkable men served under 
Scipio in this war, Marias, afterward seven times Consul, and the 
Numidian prince Jugurtha. Having brought his troops into an 
effective condition, Scipio, in the following year, proceeded to lay 
siege to Numantia. The town was defended by its inhabitants with 
the courage and perseverance which has pre-eminently distinguish- 
ed the Spaniards in all ages in the defense of their walled towns. 
It was not till tliey had suffered the most dreadful extremities of 
famine, eating even the bodies of the dead, that they surrendered 
the place (b.c. 133). Fifty of the principal inhabitants were se- 
lected to adorn Scipio's triumph ; the rest were sold as slaves, and 
the town was leveled to the ground. He now received the sur- 
name of Numantinus, in addition to that of Africanus. 

During the Numantine war Rome was menaced by a new dan- 
ger, which revealed one of the plague-spots in the Republic. We 
have already had occasion to describe the decay of the free popu- 
lation in Italy, and the great increase in the number of slaves 
from the foreign conquests of the state.* As slaves were cheap, 
in consequence of the abundant supply, the masters did not care for 
their lives, and treated them with great barbarity. A great part 
of the land in Italy was turned into sheep-walks. The slaves were 
made responsible for the sheep committed to their care, and were 
left to supply themselves with food as tliey best could. It was an 
aggravation of their wretched lot, that almost all these slaves had 
once been freemen, and were not distinguished from their masters 
by any outward sign, like the negroes in the United States. In 
Sicily the free population had diminished even more than in Italy ; 
and it was in this island that the first Servile War broke out. Da- 
mophilus, a wealthy landowner of Enna, had treated his slaves with 
excessive barbarity. They entered into a conspiracy against their 
cruel master, and consulted a Syrian slave of the name of Eunus, 
who belonged to another master. This Eunus pretended to the 
gift of prophecy, and appeared to breathe flames of fire from his 
mouth. He not only promised them success, but joined in the en- 
terprise himself. Having assembled to the number of about 400 
men, they suddenly attacked Enna, and, being joined by their fel- 
low-citizens within the town, quickly made themselves masters of 
it. Great excesses were committed, and almost all the freemen 
were put to death with horrid tortures. Eunus had, while yet a 
slave, prophesied that he should become king. He now assumed 
the royal diadem, and the title of King Antiochus. Sicily was at 
this time swarming with slaves, a great proportion of them Syrians, 
who flocked to the standard of their countryman and fellow-bonds- 

* S?p p. TPS. 



B.C. 134-132. FIRST SERVILE WAR. 147 

inan. The revolt now became general, and the island was deliv- 
ered over to the murderous fury of men maddened by oppression, 
cruelty, and insult. The Prajtors, who first led armies against 
them, were totally defeated ; and in b.c. 134 it was thought neces- 
sary to send the Consul C. Fulvius Flaccus to subdue the insurrec- 
tion. But neither he, nor the Consul of the following year, suc- 
ceeded in this object; and it was not till B.C. 132 that the Consul 
P. Rupilius brought the war to an end by the capture of Taurome- 
nium and Enna, the two strong-holds of the insurgents. The life 
of Eunus was spared, probably with the intention of carrying him 
to Rome, but he died in prison at Morgantia. 

About the same time died Attalus Philometor, the last king 
of Pergamus, leaving no children (b.c. 133). He beqeuathed his 
kingdom and treasures to the Roman people ; but Aristonicus, a 
natural son of Eumenes, the father of Attalus, laid claim to the 
crown. He even defeated the Consul P. Licinius Crassus, who 
fell in the engagement (b.c. 131), but he was himself defeated Mid 
taken ])risoner in the following year. The kingdom of Pergamus 
was formed into a Roman province under the name of Asia (b.c. 
129). 

The foreign dominions of Rome now comprised the ten follow- 
ing provinces, to which is added the date of the formation of each : 
1. Sicily, B.C. 241. 2. Sardinia and Corsica, b.c. 238. 3, 4. The 
two Spains, Citerior and Ulterior, b.c. 205. 5. Gallia Cisalpina, 
B.C. 191. 6. Macedonia, b.c. 146. 7. Illyricum, probably form- 
ed at the same time as Macedonia. 8. Achaia, that is. Southern 
Greece, virtually a province after the capture of Corinth, b.c. 146, 
though the exact date of its formation is unknown. 9. Africa, con- 
sisting of the dominions of Carthage, b.c. 146. 10. Asia, includ- 
ing the kingdom of Pergamus, b.c. 129. To these an eleventh was 
added in b.c. 118 by the conquest of the southern portion of Trans- 
alpine Gaul between the Alps and the Pyrenees. In contrast with 
the other portions of Gaul, it was frequently called simply the 
"Provincia," a name which has been retained in the modern 
Provence. 




stairs of the modern Capitol. 



CHAPTEK XXL 

THE GRACCHI. B.C. 133-121. 

The more thoughtful Romans had foreseen the dangers with 
which Rome was menaced by the impoverishment of her free pop- 
ulation, and the alarming increase in the number of slaves. It is 
said that Lselius, the friend of the elder Scipio Africanus, had at 
the close of the Second Punic War meditated some reforms to ar- 
rest the growing evil, but had given them up as impracticable. The 
Servile War in Sicily had lately revealed the extent of the peril to 
which the Republic was exposed. It must have been felt by many 
that the evil would never have reached its present height if the Li- 
cinian Law had been obsei-ved, if men had been appointed to watch 
over its execution, and if the newly-acquired public lands had from 
time to time been distributed among the people. But the nobles, 
from long possession, had come to regard the public land as their 
own ; many had acquired their portions by purchase, inheritance. 



B.C. 133. THE GRACCHI. 149 

or marriage ; and eveiy one shrank from interfering with interests 
supported by long prescription and usage. Still, unless something 
was done, matters would become worse ; the poor would become 
poorer, and the slaves more numerous, and the state would de- 
scend more rapidly into the yawning abyss beneath it. Under 
these circumstances, two young men, belonging to one of the no- 
blest families in Rome, came forward to save the Republic, but 
perished in the attempt. Their violent death may be regarded as 
the beginning of the Civil Wars, which ended in the destruction of 
freedom, and the establishment of the despotism of the Empire. 

Tiberius and Caius Gracchus were the sons of Tib. Sempronius 
Gracchus, whose prudent measures gave tranquillity to Spain for 
so many years.* They lost their father at an early age, but they 
were educated with the utmost care by their mother, Cornelia, the 
daughter of Scipio Africanus the elder, who had inherited from her 
father a love of literature, and united in her person the severe vir- 
tue of the ancient Roman matron with the superior knowledge and 
refinement which then prevailed in the higher classes at Rome. 
She engaged for her sons the most eminent Greek teachers ; and it 
was mainly owing to the pains she took with their education that 
they surpassed all the Roman youths of their age. Tiberius was 
nine years older than his brother Caius. The latter had more abil- 
ity, but Tiberius was the more amiable, and won all hearts by the 
simplicity of his demeanor and his graceful and persuasive elo- 
quence. So highly was Tiberius esteemed, that as soon as he reach- 
ed the age of manhood he was elected Augur, and at the banquet 
given at his installation Appius Claudius, then Chief of the Senate, 
offered him his daughter in marriage. When Appius returned 
home and informed his wife that he had just betrothed their daugh- 
ter, she exclaimed, "Why in such a hurry, unless you have got Tib. 
Gracchus for her husband?" Sempronia, the only sister of Tibe- 
rius, was married to the younger Scipio Africanus. Tiberius was 
thus, by birth and marriage, connected with the noblest families in 
the Republic — the grandson of the conqueror of Hannibal — the son- 
in-law of the Chief of the Senate — and the brother-in-law of the de- 
stroyer of Carthage. 

Tiberius sensed under his brother-in-law in Africa, and was the 
first who scaled the walls of Carthage. He was Qusestor in B.C. 
137, and accompanied the Consul C. Hostilius to Spain, where he 
saved the army by obtaining a treaty with the Numantines, which 
the Senate refused to ratify, t In passing through Etruria, on his 
way to Spain, Tiberius had observed with giief and indignation the 
deserted state of that fertile country. Thousands of foreign slaves 
* See p. 135. , t See p. 146. 



150 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXI. 

were tending the flocks and cultivating the soil of the wealthy land- 
owners, while Roman citizens, thus thrown out of employment, could 
scarcely procure their daily bread, and had not a clod of earth to 
call their own. He now conceived the design of applying a remedy 
to this state of things, and with this view became a candidate for tho 
Tribunate, and was elected for the year B.C. 133. 

Tiberius, however, did not act with precipitation. The measure 
which he brought forward had previously received the approbation 
of some of the wisest and noblest men in the state ; of his own fa- 
ther-in-law Appius Claudius ; of P. Mucins Sceevola, the great jurist, 
who was then Consul ; and of Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus. It 
was proposed to re-enact the Licinian Law of B.C. 364 — which had, 
in fact, never been repealed — but with some modifications and ad- 
ditions. As in the Licinian Law, no one was to be allowed to pos- 
sess more than 500 jugera of public land ; but, to relax the strin- 
gency of this rule, every possessor might hold in addition 250 jugera 
for each of his sons. All the rest of the public land was to be taken 
away from them and distributed among the poor citizens, who were 
not to be permitted to alienate these lots, in order that they might 
not be again absorbed into the estate of the wealthy. An indem- 
nity was to be given from the public treasuiy for all buildings erect- 
ed upon lands thus taken away. Three commissioners (Triumviri) 
were to be elected by the tribes in order to carry this law into exe- 
cution. 

The Law affected only Public Lands, but it was no less a revolu- 
tionary measure. It is true that no prescription can, as a general 
rule, be pleaded against the rights of the state, but the possessors 
of the public lands had enjoyed them without question for so long 
a period that they had come to regard these lands as their private 
property. In many cases, as we have already said, they had been 
acquired by bond fide purchase, and the claim of the state, now 
advocated by Gracchus, was regarded as downright robbery. At- 
tacks upon property have produced the greatest convulsions in all 
states, and the Roman landowners were ready to have recourse to 
any measures to defeat the law. But the thousands who would be 
benefited by it were determined to support Tiberius at any risk. 
He told them that "the wild beasts of Italy had their dens, and 
holes, and hiding-places, while the men Avho fought and bled in de- 
fense of Italy wandered about with their wives and children with- 
out a spot of ground to rest upon." It was evident that the law 
would be carried, and the landowners therefore resorted to the only 
means left to them. They persuaded M. Octavius, one of the Trib- 
unes, to put his veto upon the measure of his colleague. This was 
a fatal and unexpected obstacle. In vain did Tiberius implore 



B.C. 133. TRIBUNATE OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS. 151 

Octavius to withdraw his veto. The contest between the Tribunes 
continued for many days. Tiberius retaliated by forbidding the 
magistrates to exercise any of tlieir functions, and by suspending, 
in fact, the entire administration of the government. But Octa- 
vius remained firm, and Tiberius therefore determined to depose 
him from his office. He summoned an Assembly of the People 
and put the question to the vote. Seventeen out of the thirty-five 
tribes had already voted for the deposition of Octavius, and the 
addition of one tribe would reduce him to a private condition, 
when Tiberius stopped the voting, anxious, at the last moment, to 
prevent the necessity of so desperate a measure. Octavius, how- 
ever, would not yield. "Complete what you have begun," was 
his only answer to the entreaties of his colleague. The eight- 
eenth tribe voted, and Tiberius ordered him to be dragged from 
the rostra. Octavius had only exercised his undoubted rights, and 
his deposition was clearly a violation of the Roman constitution. 
This gave the enemies of Gracchus the handle which they needed. 
They could now justly charge him not only with revolutionary 
measures, but with employing revolutionary means to carry them 
into effect. 

The Agrarian Law was passed without farther opposition, and 
the three commissioners elected to put it in force were Tiberius 
himself, his father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother Caius, 
then a youth of twenty, serving under P. Scipio at Numantia. 
About the same time news arrived of the death of Attalus Philo- 
metor, king of Pergamus, who had bequeathed his kingdom and 
treasures to the Republic. Tiberius therefore proposed that these 
treasures should be distributed among the people who had received 
assignments of lands, to enable them to stock their farms and to 
assist them in their cultivation. He even went so far as to threat- 
en to deprive the Senate of the regulation of the new province,- 
and to bring the subject before the Assembly of the People. The 
exasperation of the Nobility was intense. They tried every 
means to blacken the character of the Tribune, and even spread a 
report that he had received a diadem and a purple robe from the 
envoy from Pergamus, and that he meditated making himself King 
of Rome. It was evident that his life would be no longer safe 
when he ceased to be protected by the sanctity of the Tribune's 
ofiice. Accordingly, he became a candidate for the Tribunate for 
the following year. The Tribunes did not enter upon their office 
till December, but the election took place in June, at which time 
the country people, on whom he chiefly relied, were engaged in 
getting in the harvest. Still, two tribes had already voted in his 
favor, when the nobility interrupted the election by maintaining 



152 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXI. 

that it was illegal, since no man could be chosen Tribune for two 
consecutive yeai^s. After a violent debate the Assembly was ad- 
journed till the following day. Tiberius now became alarmed lest 
his enemies should get the upper hand, and he went round the 
forum with his child, appealing to the sympathy of the people and 
imploring their aid. They readily responded to his appeal, es- 
corted him home, and a large crowd kept watch around his house 
all night. 

Next day the adjourned Assembly met on the Capitol in the 
open space in front of the Temple of Jupiter. The Senate also 
assembled in the Temple of Faith close by. Scipio Nasica, the 
leader of the more violent party in the Senate, called upon the 
Consul Mucins Scsevola to stop the re-election, but the Consul 
declined to interfere. Fulvius Flaccus, a Senator, and a friend of 
Tiberius, hastened to inform him of the speech of Nasica, and told 
him that his death was resolved upon. Thereupon the friends of 
Tiberius prepared to resist force by force ; and as those at a dis- 
tance could not hear him, on account of the tumult and confusion, 
the Tribune pointed with his hand to his head, to intimate that his 
life was in danger. His enemies exclaimed that he was asking 
for the crown. The news reached the Senate. Nasica appealed 
to the Consul to save the Republic, but as Sc^vola still refused to 
have recourse to violence, Nasica sprung up and exclaimed, "The 
Consul is betraying the Republic ! let those who wish to save the 
state follow me." He then rushed out of the Senate-house, fol- 
lowed by many of the Senators. The people made way for them ; 
and they, breaking up the benches, armed themselves with sticks, 
and rushed upon Tiberius and his friends. The tribune fled to 
the Temple of Jupiter, but the door had been barred by the priests, 
and in his flight he fell over a prostrate body. As he was rising 
he received the first blow from one of his colleagues, and was 
quickly dispatched. Upward of 300 of his partisans were slain on 
the same day. Their bodies were thrown into the Tiber. This 
was the first blood shed at Rome in civil strife since the expulsion 
of the kings. 

Notwithstanding their victory, the Nobles did not venture to pro- 
pose the repeal of the Agrarian Law, and a new Commissioner was 
chosen in the place of Tiberius. The popular indignation was 
so strongly excited against Scipio Nasica that his friends advised 
him to withdraw from Italy, though he was Pontifex Maximus, 
and therefore ought not to have quitted the country. He died 
shortly afterward at Pergamus. 

All eyes were now turned to Scipio Africanus, who returned to 
Rome in b.c. 132. When Scipio received at Numantia the news 



B.C. 133. MURDER OF SCIPIO AERICANUS. 153 

of the death of Tiberius, he is reported to have exclaimed in the 
verse of Homer* — 

" So perish all who do the like again." 

The people may have thought that the brother-in-law of Tiberius 
would show some sympathy with his reforms and some sorrow for 
his fate. They were, however, soon undeceived. Being asked in 
the Assembly of the Tribes by C. Papirius Carbo, the Tribune, 
who was now the leader of the popular party, what he thought of 
the death of Tiberius, he boldly replied that "he was justly slain." 
The people, who had probably expected a different answer, loudly 
expressed their disapprobation ; whereupon Scipio, turning to the 
mob, bade them be silent, since Italy was only their step-mother."t 
The people did not forget this insult j but such was his influence 
and authority that the Nobility were able to defeat the bill of 
Carbo by which the Tribunes might be re-elected as often as the 
people pleased. Scipio was now regarded as the acknowledged 
leader of the Nobility, and the latter resolved to avail themselves 
of his powerful aid to prevent the Agrarian Law of Tiberius from 
being carried into eifect. The Italians were alarmed at the pros- 
pect of losing some of their lands, and Scipio skillfully availed him- 
self of the circumstance to propose in the Senate (b.c. 129) that 
all disputes respecting the lands of the Italians should be taken 
out of the hands of the Commissioners and transferred to the Con- 
suls. This would have been equivalent to an abrogation of the 
law, and accordingly the three Commissioners offered the most ve- 
hement opposition to his proposal. In the forum he was attacked 
by Carbo, with the bitterest invectives, as the enemy of the people ; 
and upon his again expressing his approval of the death of Tiberius, 
the people shouted out, " Down with the tyrant ! " In the evening 
he went home accompanied by the Senate and a great number of 
the Italians. He retired to his sleeping-room Avith the intention 
of composing a speech for the following day. Next morning Rome 
was thrown into consternation by the news that Scipio was found 
dead in his room. The most contradictory rumors were circu- 
lated respecting his death, but it was the general opinion that he 
was murdered. Suspicion fell upon various persons, but Carbo was 
most generally believed to have been the murderer. There was no 
inquiry into the cause of his death (b.c. 129). 

Scipio was only 56 at the time of his death. To the Republic 

• Od., i. 47. 

t It must be recollected that the mob at Rome consisted chiefly of the four city 
tribes, and that slaves when manumitted could be enrolled in these four tribes 
alone. 



154 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXI. 

his loss was irreparable. By his last act he had come forward as 
the patron of the Italians. Had he lived he might have incorpo- 
rated them in the Roman state, and by forming a united Italy have 
saved Rome from many of the horrors and disasters which she aft- 
erward suffered. 

The leaders of the popular party perceived the mistake they had 
made in alienating the Italians from their cause, and they now se- 
cured their adhesion by offering them the Roman citizenship if 
they would su])port the Agrarian Law. As Roman citizens they 
would, of course, be entitled to the benefits of the law, while they 
would, at the same time, obtain what they had so long desired — 
an equal share in political power. But the existing citizens, who 
saw that their own importance would be diminished by an increase 
in their numbers, viewed such a proposal with the utmost repug- 
nance. So strong was their feeling that, when great numbers of 
the Italians had flocked to Rome in B.C. 126, the Tribune M. Ju- 
nius Fennus carried a law that all aliens should quit the city. 
Caius Gracchus spoke against this law, and his friends still remain- 
ed faithful to the cause of the Italians. In the following year (b.c. 
125), M. Fulvius Flaccus, who was then Consul, brought forward a 
Reform Bill, granting the Roman citizenship to all the Italian al- 
lies. But it was evident that the Tribes would reject this law, and 
the Senate got rid of the proposer by sending him into Transal- 
pine Gaul, where the Massilians had implored the assistance of 
Rome against the Salluvians. In the previous year Caius Grac- 
chus had gone to Sardinia as Quaestor, so that the Senate ha'd now 
removed from Rome two of their most troublesome opponents, and 
the Italians had lost their two most powerful patrons. Bitter was 
the disappointment of tlie Italians. Fregellse, a town of Latium, 
and one of the eighteen Latin colonies which had remained faith- 
ful to Rome during the Second Punic War, took up arms, but its 
example was not followed, and it had to bear alone the brunt of 
the unequal contest. It was quickly reduced by the Praator L. 
Opimius ; the city was utterly destroyed ; and the insurrection, 
which a slight success would have made universal, was thus nipped 
in its bud (b.c. 125). 

Caius Gracchus had taken very little part in public affairs since 
his brother's death. He had spoken only twice in public : once in 
favor of the law of Carbo for the re-election of Tribunes, and a 
second time in opposition to the Alien Act of Junius Pennus, as 
already mentioned. But the eyes of the people were naturally 
turned toward him. His abilities Avere known, and the Senate 
dreaded his return to Rome. He had been already two years in 
Sardinia, and they now attempted to retain him there another year 



B.C. 123. CAIUS GRACCHUS ELECTED TRIBUNE. 157 

by sending fresh troops to the province, and by commanding the 
Proconsul to remain in the island. But Caius suddenly appeared 
at Rome, to the surprise of all parties (b.c. 124). His enemies 
brought him before the Censors to account for his conduct, but he 
defended himself so ably that not only was no stigma put upon 
him, but he was considered to have been very badly used. He 
showed that he had served in the army twelve yeais, though re- 
quired to serve only ten ; that he had acted as Quagstor two years, 
though the law demanded only one year's service ; and he added 
that he was the only soldier who took out with him a full purse 
and brought it back empty. 

Exasperated by the persecution of the Senate, Caius determined 
to become a candidate for the Tribuneship, and to reform the Ro- 
man constitution. He was elected for the year b.c. 123, and lost 
no time in bringing forward a number of important measures which 
are known as the Sempronian Laws. His legislation was direct- 
ed to two objects : the amelioration of the condition of the poor, 
and the weakening of the power of the Senate. Caius was the 
greatest orator of all his contemporaries ; the contagion of his elo- 
quence was irresistible, and the enthusiasm of the people enabled 
him to carry every thing before him. 

I. His principal laws for improving the condition of the people 
were : 

1. The extension of the Agrarian Law of his brother by planting 
new colonies in Italy and the provinces. 

2. A state provision for the poor, enacting that com should bo 
sold to every citizen at a price much below its market value. This 
was the first of the Leges Frumentari(c, which were attended with 
the most injurious effects. They emptied the treasury, at the same 
time that they taught the poor to become state paupers, instead of 
depending upon their own exertions for a living. 

3. Another law enacted that the soldiers should be equipped at 
the expense of the Republic, without the cost being deducted from 
their pay, as had hitherto been the case. 

II. The most important laws designed to diminish the power of 
the Senate were : 

1. The law by which the Judices were to be taken only from the 
Equites, and not from the Senators, as had been the custom hith- 
erto. This was a very important enactment, and needs a little ex- 
planation. All offenses against the state were originally tried in 
the Popular Assembly ; but when special enactments were passed 
for the trial of particular offenses, the practice was introduced of 
forming a body of Judices for the trial of these offenses. This was 
first done upon the passing of the Calpurnian Law (b.c. 149) for 



158 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXI. 

the punishment of provincial magistrates for extortion in their gov- 
ernment (^De Repetendis). Such oifenses had to be tried before 
the Praetor and a jury of Senators ; but as these very Senators ei- 
ther had been or hoped to be provincial magistrates, they were not 
disposed to visit with severity offenses of which they themselves ei- 
ther had been or were likely to be guilty. By depriving the Sen- 
ators of this judicial power, and by transferring it to the Equites, 
Gracchus also made the latter a political order in the state apart 
from their military character. The name of Equites was now ap- 
plied to all persons who were qualified by their fortune to act as 
Judices, whether they served in the army or not. From this time 
is dated the creation of an Ordo Equestris, whose interests were fre- 
quently opposed to those of the Senate, and who therefore served 
as a check upon the latter, 

2. Another law was directed against the arbitrary proceedings 
of the Senate in the distribution of the provinces. Hitherto the 
Senate had assigned the provinces to the Consuls after their elec- 
tion, and thus had had it in their poAver to grant wealthy govern- 
ments to their partisans, or unprofitable ones to those opposed to 
them. It was now enacted that, before the election of the Consuls, 
the Senate should determine the two provinces which the Consuls 
should have ; and that they should, immediately after election, set- 
tle between themselves, by lot or otherwise, which province each 
should take. 

These laws raised the popularity of Caius still higher, and he be- 
came for a time the absolute ruler of Rome. He was re-elected 
Tribune for the following year (b.c. 122), though he did not offer 
himself as a candidate. M. Fulvius Flaccus, who had been Consul 
in B.C. 125, was also chosen as one of his colleagues. Flaccus, it 
will be recollected, had proposed in his consulship to give the Ro- 
man franchise to the Italian allies, and it was now determined to 
bring forward a similar measure. Caius therefore brought in a 
bill conferring the citizenship upon all the Latin colonies, and 
making the Italian allies occupy the position which the Latins had 
previously held. This wise measure was equally disliked in the 
forum and the Senate. Neither the influence nor the eloquence 
of Gracchus could induce the people to view with satisfaction the 
admission of the Italian allies to equal rights and privileges with 
themselves. The Senate, pei'ceiving that the popularity of Grac- 
chus had been somewhat shaken by this measure, employed his col- 
league, M. Livius Drusus — who was noble, well-educated, wealthy, 
and eloquent — to undermine his influence with the people. With 
the sanction of the Senate, Drusus now endeavored to outbid Grac- 
chus. He played the part of a demagogue in order to supplant 



B.C. 121. CAIUS GRACCHUS AND M. L. DRUSUS. 159 

the true friend of the people. He gave to the Senate the credit of 
every popular law which he proposed, and gradually impressed the 
people with the belief that the Nobles Avere their best friends. 
Gracchus proposed to found two colonies at Tarentum and Capua, 
and named among the founders soq^of the most respectable citi- 
zens. Drusus introduced a law wP establishing no fewer than 
twelve colonies, and for settling 3000 poor citizens in each. Grac- 
chus, in the distribution of the public land, reserved a rent payable 
to the public treasury. Drusus abolished even this payment. He 
also gained the confidence of the people by asking no favor for 
himself; he took no part in the foundation of colonies, and left to 
others the management of business in which any money had to be 
expended. Gracchus, on the other hand, superintended every thing 
in person ; and the people, always jealous in pecuniary matters, 
began to suspect his motives. During his absence in Africa, whith- 
er he had gone as one of the three Commissioners for founding a 
colony upon the ruins of Carthage, Drusus was able to weaken his 
l)opularity still farther. On his return he endeavored in vain to 
reorganize his party and recover his power. Both he and Flaccus 
failed in being re-elected Tribunes ; while L. Opimius and Q. Fa- 
bius, two personal enemies of Gracchus, were raised to the Consul- 
ship. The two new Consuls had no sooner entered upon office 
(B.C. 121) than they resolved to drive matters to extremities. One 
of the first measures of Opimius was a proposal to repeal the law 
for colonizing Carthage, because it had been established upon the 
site which Scipio had cursed. It was evident that a pretext was 
only sought for taking the life of Gracchus, and Flaccus urged him 
to repel violence by force. Caius shrunk from this step, but an ac- 
cident gave his enemies the pretext which they longed for. The 
tribes had assembled at the Capitol to decide upon the colony at 
Carthage, when a servant of the Consul Opimius, pushing against 
Gracchus, insolently cried out, "Make way for honest men, you 
rascals." Gracchus turned round to him with an angry look, and 
the man was immediately stabbed by an unknown hand. The as- 
sembly immediately broke up, and Gracchus returned home, fore- 
seeing the advantage which this unfortunate occurrence would give 
to his enemies. The Senate declared Gracchus and Flaccus public 
enemies, and invested the Consuls with dictatorial powers. Dur- 
ing the night Opimius took possession of the Temple of Castor and 
Pollux, which overlooked the forum ; summoned a meeting of the 
Senate for the following morning, and ordered all the partisans of 
the Senate to be present, each with two armed slaves. Flaccus 
seized the Temple of Diana on the Aventine, and distributed arms 
to liis followers: here he was joined by Gracchus. Civil war was 



160 



HISTORY OF EOME. 



Chap. XXL 



thus declared. After some fruitless attempts at negotiation, the 
Consul proceeded to attack the Aventine. Little or no resistance 
was made, and Flaccus and Gracchus took to flight, and crossed the 
Tiber by the Sublician bridge. Gracchus escaped to the Grove of 
the Furies, accompanied oi^H^y a single slave. When the pur- 
suers reached the spot they^rond both of them dead. The slave 
had first killed his master and then himself. The head of Grac- 
chus was cut oflF, and carried to Opimius, who gave to the person 
who brought it its weight in gold. Flaccus was also put to death, 
together with numbers of his party. Their corpses were thrown 
into the Tiber, their houses demolished, and their property confis- 
cated. Even their widows were forbidden to wear mourning. Aft- 
er the bloody work had been finished, the Consul, by order of the 
Senate, dedicated a temple to Concord ! 

At a later time statues of the two Gracchi were set up in public 
places, and the spots on which they fell were declared holy ground ; 
but for the present no one dared to show any sympathy for their 
fate. Their mother Cornelia retired to Misenum, where she was 
visited by the most distinguished men. She loved to recount to 
her guests the story of her noble sons, and narrated their death 
without showing sorrow or shedding tears, as if she had been speak- 
ing of heroes of the olden time. 




^^ 



I- I I I I III 



Temple of Saturn at Rome. 




A Roman Trophy. 



CHAPTEK XXII. 

JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. B.C. 118-104. 

The murder of C. Gracchus and his adherents left the Nobility 
undisputed masters of the state, till their scandalous conduct in 
the Jugurthan War provoked a reaction against them, and raised 
to power a more terrible opponent than the Gracchi had ever been. 
This man, who took such signal vengeance upon the Nobility, was 
the lowborn Marius. He was a native of Arpinura, and was 
said to have worked for wages as a common peasant before he en- 
tered the ranks of the army. He first served in Spain, and was 
present at the siege of Numantia in B.C. 134. Here he distin- 
guished himself so much that he attracted the notice of Scipio 
Africanus, and received from him many marks of honor. Scipio 
indeed admitted him to his table ; and on a certain occasion, when 
one of the guests asked Scipio where the Roman people would find 



162 HISTOKY OF ROME. Chap. XXII. 

such another general after his death, he is said to have laid his 
hand on the shoulder of Marius, and said, "Perhaps here." The 
name of Marius does not occur again for many years, but he doubt- 
less continued to serve in the army, and became so distinguished 
that he was at length raised to the Tribunate of the Plebs in B.C. 
119, though not till he had attained the mature age of 38. Only 
two years had elapsed since the death of C.Gracchus; and the 
Nobles, flushed with victory, resolved to put down with a high hand 
the least invasion of their privileges and power. But Marius had 
the boldness to propose a law for the purpose of giving greater free- 
dom at elections; and when the Senate attempted to overawe 
him, he ordered one of his officers to carry the Consul Metellus to 
prison. Marius now became a marked man. He lost his election 
to the ^dileship, and with difficulty obtained the Prsetorship (b.c. 
115); but he added to his influence by his marriage with Julia, the 
sister of C. Julius Ccesar, the father of the future ruler of Eojne. 
His military abilities recommended him to the Consul Metellus 
(B.C. 109), who was anxious to restore discii^ine in the army and 
to I'etrieve the glory of the Roman name, which had been tarnish- 
ed by the incapacity and corruption of the previous generals in the 
Jugurthan War, which now requires our attention. 

Masinissa, the ruler of Numidia, and so long the faithful ally of 
the Romans, had died in b.c. 149, at the advanced age of 90, leav- 
ing three sons, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa, among whom 
his kingdom was divided by Scipio Africanus, according to the dy- 
ing directions of the old king. Mastanabal and Gulussa dying in 
their brother's lifetime, Micipsa became sole king. Jugurtha was 
a bastard son of Mastanabal ; but Micipsa brought him up with 
his own sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha distinguished 
himself so much that he began to excite the jealousy* of Micipsa. 
In order to remove him to a distance, and not without a hope that 
he might perish in the war, Micipsa sent him, in b.c. 134, with an 
auxiliary force, to assist Scipio against Numantia ; but this only 
proved to the young man a fresh occasion of distinction. By his 
zeal, courage, and ability he gained the favor not only of his com- 
mander, but of all the leading nobles in the Roman camp, by many 
of whom" he was secretly stimulated to nourish ambitious schemes 
for acquiring the sole sovereignty of Numidia ; and notwithstand- 
ing the contrary advice of Scipio, the counsels seem to have sunk 
deep into the mind of Jugurtha. On his return he was received 
with every demonstration of honor by Micipsa; nor did he allow 
his ambitious projects to break forth during the lifetime of the old 
man. Micipsa, on his death-bed, though but too clearly foreseeing 
what would happen, commended the two young princes to the care 



B.C. 118-104. JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. IGSS 

of Jugurtha ; but at the very first inteiTiew which took place be- 
tween them after his decease (b.c. 118) their dissensions broke out 
with the utmost fierceness. Shortly afterward Jugurtha found an 
opportunity to surprise and assassinate Hiempsal ; whereupon Ad- 
herbal and his partisans rushed to arms, but were defeated in bat- 
tle by Jugurtha. Adherbal himself fled for refuge to the Roman 
province, from whence he hastened to Rome to lay his cause be- 
fore the Senate. Jugurtha had now the opportunity, for the first 
time, of putting to the test that which he had learnt in the camp 
before Numantia of the venality and corruption of the Roman no- 
bility. He sent embassadors to Rome to counteract, by a lavish 
distribution of bribes, the efffect of the just complaints of Adherbal, 
and by these means succeeded in averting the indignation of the 
Senate. A decree was, however, passed for the division of the 
kingdom of Numidia between the two competitors, and a commit- 
tee of Senators sent to enforce its execution ; but as soon as these 
arrived in Afiica, Jugurtha succeeded in gaining them over by the 
same unscrupulous methods, and obtained, in the partition of the 
kingdom, the western division adjacent to Mauritania, by far the 
larger and richer portion of the tw^o (b.c. 117). But this advan- 
tage was far from contenting him, and shortly afterward he in- 
vaded the territories of his rival with a large army. Adherbal 
was defeated in the first engagement, his camp taken, and he him- 
self with difiiculty made his escape to the strong fortress of Cirta. 
Here he was closely blockaded by Jugurtha. The garrison sur- 
rendered on a promise of their lives being spared ; but these conr 
ditions were shamefully violated by Jugurtha, who immediately 
put to death Adherbal and all his followers (b.c. 112). 

Indignation was now loud at Rome against the Numidian king ; 
yet so powerful was the influence of those whose favor he had 
gained by his gold, that he would probably have prevailed upon 
the Senate to overlook all his misdeeds, had not one of the Trib- 
unes, C. Memmius, by bringing the matter before the people, com- 
pelled the Senators to give way. War was accordingly declared 
against him, and one of the Consuls, L. Calpurnius Bestia, landed 
in Africa with a large army, and immediately proceeded to invade 
Numidia (b.c. 111). But Jugurtha easily bribed Bestia and M. 
Scaurus, who acted as his principal lieutenant, to grant him a fa-s 
vorable peace, on condition only of a pretended submission, to- 
gether with the surrender of thirty elephants anH a small sum of 
money. As soon as the tidings of this disgraceful transaction 
reached Rome, the indignation excited was so great that, on the 
proposition of C. Memmius, it was agreed to send the Prajtor L. 
Cassins, a man of the highest integrity, to Numidia, in order to 



164 HISTORY OF EOME. Chap. XXII. 

prevail on the king to repair in person to Rome, the popular party 
hoping to be able to convict the leaders of the Nobility by means 
of his evidence. The safe-conduct granted him by the state was 
religiously observed ; but the scheme failed of its effect, for, as soon 
as Jugurtha was brought forward in the assembly of the people to 
make his statement, one of the Tribunes, who had been previously 
gained over by the friends of Scaurus and Bestia, forbade him to 
speak. He nevertheless remained at Rome for some time longer, 
and engaged in secret intrigues, which would probably have been 
ultimately crowned with success had he not in the mean time ven- 
tured to assassinate Massiva, son of Gulussa, who was putting in a 
claim to the Numidian thi'one. It was impossible to overlook so 
daring a crime, perpetrated under the very eyes of the Senate. 
Jugurtha was ordered to quit Italy without delay. It was on this 
occasion that he is said, when leaving Rome, to have uttered the 
memorable words, "A city for sale, and destined to perish quickly, 
if it can find a purchaser." 

War was now inevitable ; but the incapacity of Sp. Postumius 
Albinus, who arrived to conduct it (b.c. 110), and still more that 
of his brother Aulus, whom he left to command in his absence, 
when called away to hold the elections at Rome, proved as favora- 
ble to Jugurtha as the corruption of their predecessors. Aulus, 
having penetrated into the heart of Numidia, suffered himself to 
be surprised in his camp ; great part of his army was cut to pieces, 
and the rest only escaped a similar fate by the ignominy of passing 
under the yoke. But Jugurtha had little reason to rejoice in this 
success, great as it might at first appear ; for the disgrace at once 
roused all the spirit of the Roman people ; the treaty concluded 
by Aulus was instantly annulled, immense exertions made to raise 
troops, and one of the Consuls for the new year (b.c. 109), Q, Cas- 
cilius Metellus, hastened to Numidia to retrieve the honor of the 
Roman arms. But this did not satisfy the people. The scandal- 
ous conduct of so many of the Nobles had given fresh life to the 
popular party ; and the Tribune C. Mamilius carried a bill for the 
appointment of three Commissioners to inquire into the conduct of 
all of those who had received bribes from Jugurtha. Scaurus, 
though one of the most guilty, managed to be put upon the Com- 
mission. But he dared not shield his confederates. Many men 
of the highest rank were condemned, among whom were Bestia, 
Albinus, and Opimius. The last named was the Opimius who act- 
ed with such ferocity toward Caius Gracchus and his party. He 
died in exile at Dyrrhachium some years afterward, in great pov- 
erty. 

The Consul Metellus, who was an able general and a man of 



B.C. 118-104. JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. 165 

the strictest integrity, landed in Africa, with Marius as his lieuten- 
ant, in B.C. 109. As soon as Jugurtha discovered the character 
of the new commander he began to despair of success, and made 
overtures for submission in earnest. These were apparently en- 
tertained by Metellus, while he sought in fact to gain over the ad- 
herents of the king, and induce them to betray him to the Eomans, 
at the same time that he continued to advance into the enemy's 
territories. Jugurtha, in his turn, detected his designs, attacked 
him suddenly on his march with a numerous force, but was, after a 
severe struggle, repulsed, and his army totally routed. Metellus 
ravaged the greater part of the country, but failed in taking the 
important town of Zama before he withdrew into winter quarters. 
But he had produced such an effect upon the Numidian king, that 
Jugurtha was induced, in the course of the winter, to make offers 
of unqualified submission, and even surrendered all his elephants, 
with a number of arms and horses, and a large sum of money, to 
the Roman general ; but when called upon to place himself per- 
sonally in the power of Metellus, his courage failed him, he broke 
off the negotiation, and once more had recourse to arms. Marius 
had greatly distinguished himself in the preceding campaign. The 
readiness with which he shared the toils of the common soldiers, 
eating of the same food, and working at the same trenches with 
them, had endeared him to them, and through their letters to their 
friends at Rome his praises were in every body's mouth. His in- 
creasing reputation and popularity induced him to aspire to the 
Consulship. His hopes were increased by a circumstance which 
happened to him at Utica. While sacrificing at this place the of- 
ficiating priest told him that the victims predicted some great and 
wonderful events, and bade him execute whatever purpose he had 
in his mind. Marius thereupon applied to Metellus for leave of 
absence, that he might proceed to Rome and ofter himself as a 
candidate. ' The Consul, who belonged to a family of the highest 
nobility, at first tried to dissuade Marius from his presumptuous 
attempt, by pointing out the certainty of failure ; and when he 
could not prevail upon him to abandon his design, he civilly 
evaded his request by pleading the exigencies of the public service, 
which required his presence and assistance. But, as Marius still 
continued to press him for leave of absence, Metellus said to him 
on one occasion, "You need not be in such a hurry to go to Rome; 
it will be quite time enough for you to apply for the Consulship 
along with my son." The latter, who was then serving with the 
army, was a youth of only twenty years of age, and could not, 
therefore, become a candidate for the Consulship for the next 
twenty years. This insult was ncA^er forgotten by IMarius. He 



166 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXII. 

now began to intrigue against his general, and to represent that 
the war was purposely prolonged by Metellus to gratify his own 
vanity and love of military power. He openly declared that with 
one half of the army he would soon have Jugurtha in chains ; and 
as all his remarks were carefully reported at Rome, the people be- 
gan to regard him as the only person competent to finish the war. 
Metellus at last allowed him to leave Africa, but only twelve days 
before the election. Meeting with a favorable wind, he arrived at 
Rome in time, and was elected Consul with an enthusiasm which 
bore down all opposition. He received from the people the prov- 
ince of Numidia, although the Senate had previously decreed that 
Metellus should continue in his command. The exultation of 
Marius knew no bounds. In his speeches to the public, he gloried 
in his humble origin. He upbraided the Nobles with their effem- 
inacy and licentiousness ; he told them that he looked upon the 
Consulship as a trophy of his conquest over them ; and he proudly 
compared his own wounds and military experience with their indo- 
lence and ignorance of war. It was a great triumph for the peo- 
ple and a great humiliation for the aristocracy, and Marius made 
them drink to the dregs the bitter cup. While engaged in these 
attacks upon the Nobility, he at the same time carried on a levy of 
troops with great activity, and enrolled any persons who chose to 
offer for the service, however poor and mean, instead of taking 
them from the five classes according to ancient custom.* 

Meantime Metellus had been carrying on the war in Africa as 
Proconsul (b.c. 108). But the campaign was not productive of 
such decisive results as might have been expected. Jugurtha 
avoided any general action, and eluded the pursuit of Metellus by 
the rapidity of his movements. Even when driven from Thala, a 
strong-hold which he had deemed inaccessible from its position in 
the midst of arid deserts, he only retired among the Gcetulians, and 
qiaickly succeeded in raising among those wild tribes a fresh army, 
with which he once more penetrated into the heart of Numidia. 
A still more important accession was that of Bocchus, king of 
Mauritania, who had been prevailed upon to raise an army, and 
advance to the support of Jugurtha. Metellus, however, having 
now relaxed his own efforts, from disgust at hearing that C. Marius 
had been appointed to succeed him in the command, remained on 
the defensive, while he sought to amuse the Moorish king by ne- 
gotiation. 

The arrival of Marius (b c. 107) infused fresh vigor into the Ro- 
man arms. He quickly reduced in succession almost all the strong- 
holds that still remained to Jugurtha, in some of which the king 
* On this important change in the Roman army, see p. 124. 



B.C. 107-106. MARIUS AND SULLA. 167 

had deposited his principal treasures ; and the latter, seeing him- 
self thus deprived step by step of all his dominions, at length de- 
termined on a desperate attempt to retrieve his fortunes by one 
grand effort. He with difficulty prevailed on the wavering Bocchus, 
by the most extensive promises in case of success, to co-operate 
with liim in this enterprise ; and the two kings, with their united 
forces, attacked Marius on his march, when he was about to retire 
into winter quarters. Though the Koman general was taken by 
surprise for a moment, his consummate skill and the discipline of 
his troops proved again triumphant ; the Numidians Mere repulsed, 
and their army, as usual with them in case of a defeat, dispersed in 
all directions. Jugurtha himself, after displaying the greatest cour- 
age in the action, cut his way almost alone through a body of Ro- 
man cavalry, and escaped frcnn the field of battle. He quickly again 
gathered round him a body of Numidian horse ; but his only hope 
of continuing the war now rested on Bocchus. The latter was for 
some time uncertain what course to adopt, but was at length gain- 
ed over by Sulla, the Qucestor of Marius, to the Roman cause, and 
joined in a plan for seizing the person of the Numidian king. Ju- 
gurtha fell into the snare ; he was induced, under pretense of a 
conference, to repair with only a few followers to meet Bocchus, 
when he was instantly surrounded, his attendants cut to pieces, and 
he himself made prisoner, and delivered in chains to Sulla, by 
whom he was conveyed directly to the camp of Marius. This oc- 
curred early in the year B.C. 106. 

L. Cornelius Sulla, the Qua-stor of Marius, who afterward plays 
such a distinguished part in Roman hi:>tory, was descended from a 
Patrician family which had been reduced to great obscurity. But 
his means were sufficient to secure him a good education. He 
studied the Greek and Roman writers with diligence and success, 
and early imbibed that love of literature and art by which he was 
distinguished throughout his life. But he was also fond of pleas- 
ure, and was conspicuous even among the Romans for licentious- 
ness and debauchery. He was in every respect a contrast to Ma- 
rius. He possessed all the accomplishments and all the vices which 
the old Cato had been most accustomed to denounce, and he was 
one of those advocates of Greek literature and of Greek profligacy 
who had since Cato's time become more and more common among 
the Roman Nobles. But Sulla's love of pleasure did not absorb 
all his time, nor enfeeble his mind ; for no Roman during the lat- 
ter days of the Republic, with the exception of Julius Ceesar, had a 
clearer judgment, a keener discrimination of character, or a firmer 
will. Upon his arrival in Africa, Marius was not well pleased that 
a QuoBstor had been assigned to him who was only known for his 



168 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



Chap. XXII. 



profligacy, and who had had no experience in war ; but the zeal and 
energy with which Sulla attended to his new duties soon rendered 
him a useful and skillful officer, and gained for him the unquali- 
fied approbation of his commander, notwithstanding his previous 
prejudices against him. He was equally successful in winning the 
affections of the soldiers. He always addressed them with the 
greatest kindness, seized every opportunity of conferring favors upon 
them, was ever ready to take part in all the jests of the camp, and 
at the same time never shrank from sharing in all their labors and 
dangers. It is a curious circumstance that Marius gave to his fu- 
ture enemy and the destroyer of his family and party the first op- 
portunity of distinguishing himself. The enemies of Marius claim- 
ed for Sulla the glory of the betrayal of Jugurtha, and Sulla him- 
self took the credit of it by always wearing a signet ring repre- 
senting the scene of the surrender. 

Marius continued more than a year in Africa after the capture of 
Jugurtha. He entered Rome on the first of January, b.c. 1 04, lead- 
ing Jugurtha in triumph. The Numidian king was then thrown 
into a dungeon, and there starved to death. Marius, during his 
absence, had been elected Consul a second time, and he entered 
upon his office on the day of his triumph. The reason of this un- 
precedented honor will be related in the following chapter. 




Soldiers Wowing Tuljse and Cornua. (From Column of Trajan.) 




(Jaius Marius. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101. — SECOND SERVILE WAR 
IN SICILY, B.C. 103-101. 

A GREATER danger than Rome had experienced since the time 
of Hannibal now threatened the state. Vast numbers of barbari- 
ans, such as spread over the south of Europe in the later times of 
the Roman Empire, had collected together on the northern side of 
the Alps, and were ready to pour down upon Italy. The two lead- 
ing nations of which they consisted are called Cimbri and Teutones, 
of whom the former were probably Celts and the latter Germans, 
but the exact parts of Europe from which they came can not be as- 
certained. The whole host is said to have contained 300,000 fight- 
ing men, besides a much larger number of women and children. 
The alarm at Rome was still farther increased by the ill success 
which had hitherto attended the arms of the Republic against these 
barbarians. Army after army had fallen before them. The Cimbri 
were first heard of in b.c. 113, in Noricum, whence they descended 
into Illyricum, and defeated a Roman army under the command of 
Cn. Papirius Carbo. They then marched westward into Switzer- 
land, where they were joined by the Tigurini and the Ambrones. 
They next poured over Gaul, which they plundered and ravaged in 
every direction. The Romans sent army after army to defend the 
southwestern part of the country, which was now a Roman prov- 
ince; but all in vain. In b.c. 109 the Consul M.Junius Silanus 
was defeated by the Cimbri ; in b.c. 107 the Tigurini cut in pieces, 
near the Lake of Geneva, the armv of the Consul L. Cassius Lon- 



170 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXIII. 

ginus, the colleague of Marius, who lost his life in the battle ; and 
shortly afterward M. Aurelius Seaurus was also defeated and taken 
prisoner. But the most dreadful loss was still to come. In B.C. 
105 two consular armies, commanded by the Consul Cn. Mallius 
Maximus and the Proconsul Cn. Servilius Ctepio, consisting of 
80,000 men, were completely annihilated by the barbarians: only 
two men are said to have escaped the slaughter. 

These repeated disasters hushed all party quarrels. Every one 
at Rome felt that Marius was the only man capable of saving the 
state, and he was accordingly elected Consul by the unanimous 
votes of all parties while he was still absent in Africa. He enter- 
ed Rome in triumph, as we have already said, on the 1st of Janu- 
ary, B.C. 104, which was the first day of his second Consulship. 
Meantime the threatened danger was for a while averted. Instead 
of crossing the Alps and pouring down upon Italy, as had been ex- 
pected, the Cimbri marched into Spain, which they ravaged for the 
next two or three years. This interval was advantageously em- 
ployed by Marius in training the new troops, and accustoming them 
to hardships and toil. It was probably during this time that he 
introduced the various changes into the organization of the Ro- 
man army which are usually attributed to him. Notwithstanding 
the sternness and severity with which he punished the least breach 
of discipline, he was a favorite with his new soldiers, who learned 
to place implicit confidence in their general, and were delighted 
with the strict impartiality with which he visited the offenses of the 
officers as well as of the privates. As the enemy still continued in 
Spain, Marius was elected Consul a third time for the year B.C. 
103, and also a fourth time for the following year, with Q. Lutatius 
Catulus as his colleague. It was in this year (b.c. 102) that the 
long-expected barbarians arrived. The Cimbri, Avho had returned 
from Spain, united their forces with the Teutones. Marius first 
took up his position in a fortified camp upon the Rhone, probably 
in the vicinity of the modern Aries ; and as the entrance of the 
river was nearly blocked up by mud and sand, he employed his sol- 
diers in digging a canal from the Rhone to the Mediterranean, that 
he might the more easily obtain his supplies from the sea.* Mean- 
time the barbarians had divided their forces. The Cimbri march- 
ed round the northern foot of the Alps, in order to enter Italy by 
the northeast, crossing the Tyrolese Alps by the defiles of Triden- 
tum (Trent). The Teutones and Ambrones, on the other hand, 
marched against Marius, intending, as it seems, to penetrate into 
Italy by Nice and the Riviera of Genoa. Marius, anxious to ac- 

* This canal continued to exist long afterward, and bore the name of Fossa 

Mariana. 



B.C. 113-101. THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES. 171 

custom his soldiers to the savage and strange appearance of the 
barbarians, would not give them battle at first. The latter resolved 
to attack the Konian camp ; but as they were repulsed in this at- 
tempt, they pressed on at once for Italy. So great were their num- 
bers, that tliey are said to have been six days in marching by the 
Roman camp. As soon as they had advanced a little way, Marius 
followed them ; and thus the armies continued to march for a few 
days, the barbarians in the front and Marius behind, till they came 
to the neighborhood of Aquas Sextise (Aix). Here the decisive bat- 
tle was fought. An ambush of 3000 soldiers, which Marius had 
stationed in the rear of the barbarians, and which fell uptJh them 
when they were already retreating, decided the fortune 6f the day. 
Attacked both in front and rear, and also dreadfully exhausted by 
the excessive heat of the weather, they at length broke their ranks 
and fled. The carnage was dreadful ; the whole nation was anni- 
hilated, for those who escaped put an end to their lives, and their 
wives followed their example. Immediately after the battle, as 
Marius w'as in the act of setting fire to the vast heap of broken 
arms which was intended as an offering to the gods, horsemen rode 
up to him, and greeted him with the news of his being elected Con- 
sul for the fifth time. 

The Cimbri, in the mean time, had forced their way into Italy. 
The colleague of Marius, Q. Lutatius Catulus, despairing of de- 
fending the passes of the Tyrol, had taken up a strong position on 
the Athesis (Adige) ; but, in consequence of the terror of his sol- 
diers at the approach of the barbarians, he was obliged to retreat 
even beyond the Fo, thus leaving the whole of the rich plain of 
Lombardy exposed to their ravages. Marius was therefore recalled 
to Rome. The Senate offered him a triumph for his victory over 
the Teutones, which he declined while the Cimbri were in Italy, 
and proceeded to join Catulus, who now commanded as Proconsul 
(B.C. 101). The united armies of the Consul and Proconsul cross- 
ed the Po, and hastened in search of the Cimbri, whom they found 
to the Avestward of Milan, near Vercella;, searching for the Teutones, 
of whose destruction they had not yet heard. The Cimbri met 
with the same fate as the Teutones ; the whole nation was annihi- 
lated ; and the women, like those of the Teutones, put an end to 
their lives. Marius was hailed as the savior of the state ; his name 
was coupled with the gods in the libations and at banquets ; and 
he received the title of third founder of Rome. lie celebrated his 
victories by a brilliant triumph, in which, however, he allowed Ca- 
tulus to share. 

During the brilliant campaigns of Marius, Sicily had been ex- 
posed to the horrors of a second Servile War. The insurrection 



172 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



Chap. XXIII. 



broke out in the east of the island, where the slaves elected as 
their king one Salvias, a soothsayer. He displayed considerable 
abilities, and in a short time collected a force of 20,000 foot and 
2000 horse. After defeating a Roman army he assumed all the 
pomp of royalty, and took the surname of Tryphon, which had been 
borne by a usurper to the Syrian throne. The success of Salvius 
led to an insurrection in the western part of the island, where the 
slaves chose as their leader a Cilician named Athenio, who joined 
Tryphon, and acknowledged his sovereignty. Upon the death of 
Tryphon, Athenio became king. The insurrection had now as- 
suraed'such a formidable aspect that, in B.C. 101, the Senate sent 
the Consul M. Aquillius into Sicily. He succeeded in subduing the 
insurgents, and killed Athenio with his own hand. The survivors 
were sent to Rome, and condemned to fight with wild beasts ; but 
they disdained to minister to the pleasures of their oppressors, and 
slew each other with their own hands in the amphitheatre. 




-Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.) 




Tomb of Metella Caecilia. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE CIMBRI 
AND TEUTONES TO THE SOCIAL WAR. B.C. 100-91. 

The career of Marius had hitherto been a glorious one, and it 
would have been fortunate for him if he had died on the day of his 
triumph. The remainder of his life is full of horrors, and brings 
out into prominent relief the worst features of his character. As 
the time for the consular elections approached, Marius became 
again a candidate for the Consulship. He wished to be first in 
peace as well as in war, and to rule the state as well as the army. 
But he did not possess the qualities requisite for a popular leader 
at Rome ; he had no power of oratory, and lost his presence of 
mind in the noise and shouts of the popular assemblies. In order 
to secure his election, he entered into close connection with two of 
the worst demagogues that ever appeared at Rome, Saturninus and 
Glaucia. The former was a candidate for the Tribunate, and the 
latter for the Prsetorship ; and by their means, as Avell as by brib- 
ing the Tribes, Marius secured his election to the Consulship for 



174 HISTORY OF EOME. Chap. XXIV. 

the sixth time. Glancia also obtained the Prjetorship, but Satur- 
ninus was not equally successful. He lost his election chiefly 
through the exertions of A. Nonius, who was chosen in his stead. 
But Nonius paid dearly for the honor, for on the evening of his 
election he was murdered by the emissaries of Saturninus and 
Gh\ucia, and next morning, at an early hour, before the forum 
was full, Saturninus was chosen to fill up the vacancy. 

As soon as Saturninus had entered upon his office (b.c. TOO) he 
brought forward an Agrarian Law for dividing among the soldiers 
of Marius the lands in Gaul which had been lately occupied by the 
Cimbri. He added to the law a clause that, if it was enacted by 
the people, every Senator should swear obedience to it within five 
days, and that whoever refused to do so should be expelled from 
the Senate, and pay a fine of twenty talents. This clause was 
specially aimed at Metellus, who, it was well known, would refuse 
to obey the requisition. In order to insure a refusal on the part 
of Metellus, Marius rose in the Senate, and declared that he would 
never take the oath, and Metellus made the same declaration ; 
but when the law had been passed, and Saturninus summoned the 
Senators to the rostra to comply with the demands of the law, 
Marius, to the astonishment of all, immediately took the oath, and 
advised the Senate to follow his example. Metellus alone refused 
compliance ; and on the folloAving day Saturninus sent his beadle 
to drag him out of the Senate-house. Not content with this vic- 
tory, Saturninus brought forward a bill to punish him with exile. 
The friends of Metellus were ready to take np arms in his defense ; 
but he declined their assistance, and withdrew privately from the 
city. Saturninus brought forward other popular measures, of 
which our information is very scanty. He proposed Si Lex Frumen- 
taria, by which the state was to sell corn to the people at a very 
low price ; and also a law for founding new colonies in Sicily, 
Achaia, and Macedonia. In the election of the magistrates for 
the following year Saturninus was again chosen Tribune. Glaucia 
was at tlie same time a cjindidate for the Consulship, the two other 
candidates being M. Antonius and C. Memmius. The election of 
Antonius was certain, and the struggle lay between Glaucia and 
Memmius. As the latter seemed likely to carry his election, Sat- 
urninus and Glaucia hired some ruffians, who murdered him open- 
ly in the comitia. All sensible people had previously become 
alarmed at the mad conduct of Saturninus and his partisans, and 
this last act produced a complete reaction against them. The 
Senate felt themselves now sufficiently strong to declare them 
public enemies, and invested the Consuls with dictatorial power. 
Marius was unwilling to act against his associates, but he had no 



B.C. 100-91. FACTIONS IN EOME. ]75 

alternative, and his backwardness was compensated by the zeal of 
others. Driven out of the forum, Saturninus, Glaucia, and the 
Quajstor Saufeius took refuge in the Capitol, but the partisans of 
the Senate cut off the pipes which supplied the citadel with water 
before Marius began to move against them. Unable to hold out 
any longer, they surrendered to Marius. The latter did all he 
could to save their lives : as soon as they descended from the Cap- 
itol, he placed them, for security, in the Curia Hostilia ; but the 
mob pulled off the tiles of the Senate-house, and pelted them till 
they died. The Senate gave their sanction to the proceeding by 
rewarding with the citizenship a slave of the name of Screva, who 
claimed the honor of having killed Saturninus. 

Marius had lost all influence in the state by allying himself with 
such unprincipled adventurers. In the following year (n.c. 99) he 
left Rome, in order that he might not witness the return of Metel- 
lus from exile, a measure wliich he had been unable to prevent. 
He set sail for Cappadocia and Galatia under the pretense of of- 
fering sacrifices which he had vowed to the Great Mother. He 
had, however, a deeper purpose in visiting these countries. Find- 
ing that he was losing his popularity while the Republic was at 
peace, he was anxious to recover his lost ground by gaining fresh 
victories in war, and accordingly repaired to the court of Mithri- 
dates, in hopes of rousing him to attack the Romans. 

The mad scheme of Saturninus, and the discredit into which 
Marius had fallen, had given new strength to the Senate. They 
judged the opportunity favorable for depriving the Equites of the 
judicial power which they had enjoyed, with only a temporary ces- 
sation, since the time of C. Gracchus. The Equites had abused 
their power, as the Senate had done before them. They were the 
capitalists who farmed the public revenues in the provinces, where 
they committed peculation and extortion with habitual impunity. 
When accused, they were tried by accomplices and partisans. 
Their unjust condemnation of Rntilius Rufus had shown how unfit 
they were to be intrusted with judicial duties. Rutilius was a man 
of spotless integrity, and while acting as lieutenant to Q. Mucins 
Sc«vola, Proconsul of Asia in b.c. 95, he displayed so much hon- 
esty and firmness in repressing the extortions of the farmers of the 
taxes, that he became an object of fear and hatred to the whole 
body. Accordingly, on his return to Rome, a charge of malversa- 
tion was trumped up against him, he was found guilty, and com- 
pelled to withdraw into banishment (b.c. 92). 

The following year (b.c. 91) witnessed the memorable Tribunate 
of M. Livius Drusus. He was the son of the celebrated opponent 
of C. Gracchus. He was a man of boundless activitv and extraor- 



176 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXIV. 

dinary ability. Like his father, he was an advocate of the party 
of the Nobles. He took up arms against Saturninus, and support- 
ed the Senate in the dispute for the possession of the judicial pow- 
er. His election to the Tribunate was hailed by the Nobles with 
delight, and for a time he possessed their unlimited confidence. 
He gained over the people to the party of the Senate by various 
popular measures, such as the distribution of corn at a low price, 
and the establishment of colonies in Italy and Sicily. He was 
thus enabled to carry his measures for the reform of the judicia, 
which were, that the Senate should be increased from 300 to 600 
by the addition of an equal number of Equites, and that the Judi- 
ces should be taken from the Senate thus doubled in numbers. 
Drusus seems to have been actuated by a single-minded desire to 
do justice to all, but the measure was acceptable to neither party. 
The Senators viewed with dislike the elevation to their own rank 
of 300 Equites, while the Equites had no desire to transfer to a 
select few of their own order the profitable share in the adminis- 
tration of justice which they all enjoyed. 

Another measure of Drusus rendered him equally unpopular with 
the people. He had held out to the Latins and the Italian allies 
the promise of the Roman franchise. Some of the most eminent 
men of Rome had long been convinced of the necessity of this re- 
form. It had been meditated by the younger Scipio Africanus, 
and proposed by C. Gracchus. The Roman people, however, al- 
ways offered it the most violent opposition. But Drusus still had 
many partisans. The Italian allies looked up to him as their lead- 
er, and loudly demanded the rights which had been promised them. 
It was too late to retreat ; and, in order to oppose the formidable 
coalition against him, Drusus had recourse to sedition and conspir- 
acy. A secret society was formed, in which the members bound' 
themselves by a solemn oath to have the same friends and foes 
with Drusus, and to obey all his commands. Tlie ferment soon 
became so great that the public peace was more than once threat- 
ened. The Allies were ready to take up arms at the first move- 
ment. The Consuls, looking upon Drusus as a conspirator, re- 
solved to meet his plots by counterplots. But he knew his dan- 
ger, and whenever he went into the city kept a strong body-guard 
of attendants close to his person. The end could not much longer 
be postponed ; and the civil war was on the point of breaking out, 
when one evening Drusus was assassinated in his own house, while 
dismissing the crowds who were attending him. A leather-cut- 
ter's knife was found sticking in his loins. Turning round to those 
who surrounded him, he asked them, as he was dying, " Friends 



B.C. 91. 



M. LIVIUS DRUSUS. 



177 



and neighbors, when will the Commonwealth have a citizen like 
me again?" 

Even in the lifetime of Drusus the Senate had repealed all his 
laws. After his death the Tribune Q. Varius brought forward a 
law declaring all persons guilty of high treason who had assisted 
the cause of the Allies. Many eminent men were condemned un- 
der this law. This measure, following the assassination of Drusus, 
roused the indignation of the Allies to the highest pitch. They 
clearly saw that the Roman people would yield nothing except 
upon compulsion. 




^^^v^i^^Sd^^S^r^"^^^, 



Beneventum in Samnium. 

M 




Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of Federation. 



CHAPTEK XXV. 

THE SOCIAL OR MAKSIC WAR. B.C. 90-89. 

Rome had never been exposed to greater danger than at this 
time. Those who had been her bravest defenders now rose against 
her ; and she Avould probably have perished had the whole Italian 
people taken part in the war. But the . insurrection was confined 
almost exclusively to the Sabellians and their kindred races. The 
Etruscans and Umbrians stood aloof, while the Sabines, Volscians, 
and other tribes who already possessed the Roman franchise, sup- 
ported the Republic, and furnished the materials of her armies. 
The nations which composed the formidable conspiracy against 
Rome were eight in number — the Marsians, Pelignians, Marrucin- 
ians, Vestinians, Picentines, Samnites, Apulians, and Lucanians. 
Of these the Marsians were particularly distinguished for their 
courage and skill in war ; and from the prominent part which they 
took in the struggle, it was frequently termed the Marsic as well as 
the Social War. 

The war broke out at A senium in Picenum. The Proconsul 
Q. Servilius, who had the charge of this part of Italy, hearing that 
the inhabitants of Asculum were organizing a revolt, entered the 
town, and endeavored to persuade them to lay aside their hos- 
tile intentions. But he was murdered, together with his legate, 
by the exasperated citizens, and all the Romans in the place were 
likewise put to death. The insurrection now became general. 
The Allies entered upon the war with feelings of bitter hatred 
against their former rulers. They resolved to destroy Rome, and 
fixed upon Corfinium, a strong city of the Peligni, to which they 
gave the name of Italica, as the new capital of the Italian Confed- 
eration. The government of the new Republic was borrowed from 
that of Rome. It was to have two Consuls, twelve Praators, and 
a Senate of 500 member?. Q. Pompa;dius Silo, a Marsian, one of 



B.C. 90-89. SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR. 179 

the chief instigators of the war, and C. Papius Mutilus, a Samnite, 
who cherished the hereditary hatred of his countr3'men against the 
Romans, were chosen Consuls. Under them were many able lieu- 
tenants, who had learned the art of war under the best Roman 
generals. The soldiers had also served in the Roman armies, and 
were armed and disciplined in the same way, so that the contest 
partook of all the characters of a civil war. But the Romans had 
the great advantage which a single state always possesses over a 
confederation. 

Of the details of the war our information is meagre and imper- 
fect. But in the military operations we clearly see that the Allies 
formed two principal groups : the one composed of the Marsians, 
with their neighbors the Marrucinians, Pelignians,Vestinians, and 
Picentines ; the other of the Samnites, with the Lucanians and 
Apulians. The two Consuls, L. Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius Lu- 
pus, took the field with powerful armies, and under them served 
Marius, Sulla, and the most experienced generals of the time. The 
Romans were fully awai'e of the formidable nature of the struggle, 
which was one for existence, and not for victory. In the first cam- 
paign the advantage was on the side of the Allies. The Samnites, 
under their Consul Papius, overran Campania, took most of the 
towns, and laid siege to Acerrss, into which Caesar threw himself. 
Pompjedius Silo was still more successful. He defeated the Ro- 
man Consul P. Rutilius Lupus with great slaughter, Rutilius him- 
self being slain in the battle. This disaster was to some extent 
repaired by Marius, who commanded a separate army in the neigh- 
borhood, and compelled the victorious Allies to retire. The old 
general then intrenched himself in a fortified camp, and neither 
the stratagems nor the taunts of the Samnites could entice him 
from his advantageous position. " If you are a great general," said 
Pompjedius, "come down and fight;" to which the veteran re- 
plied, " Nay, do yoii^ if you are a great general, compel me to fight 
against my will." The Romans considered that Marius was over- 
cautions and too slow; and Plutarch says that his age and corpu- 
lence rendered him incapable of enduring the fatigue of very active 
service. But it is more probable that he was not very willing to 
destroy the Allies, who had been among his most active partisans, 
and to whom he still looked for support ii^his future struggles 
with the Nobility. 

The Romans now saw the necessity of making some concessions. 
The Lex Julia, proposed by the Consul Julius Caesar, granted the 
franchise to all the Latin colonies, and to those of the Allies who 
had remained faithful to Rome, or had laid down their arms. The 
effects of this concession were immediately seen. Several of the 



180 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXV. 

Allies hastened to avail themselves of it, and disunion and distrust 
were produced among the rest. 

The next campaign (b.c. 89) was decidedly favorable to the Ro- 
mans. The Consuls were Cn.Pompeius Strabo, the father of the 
celebrated Triumvir, and L. Porcius Cato. The latter, it is true, 
was slain at the commencement of the campaign ; but his loss 
was more than compensated by his lieutenant Sulla obtaining, in 
consequence, the supreme command. He carried on the war with 
the utmost vigor, and completely eclipsed his old commander Ma- 
rius. He drove the enemy out of Campania, subdued the Hirpini, 
and then penetrated into the very heart of Samnium. Here he de- 
feated Papius Mutilus, the Samnite Consul, and followed up his 
victory by the capture of the strong town of Bovianum. 

Meanwhile Pompeius Strabo had been equally successful in the 
north. Asculum was reduced after a long and obstinate siege. 
The MarrucinianSjVestinians, Pelignians, and finally the Marsians, 
laid down their arms before the end of the year. Their submis- 
sion was facilitated by the Lex Plautia Papiria, proposed by the 
Tribunes M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo (b.c. 89), 
which completed the arrangements of the Lex Julia, and granted, 
in fact, every thing which the Allies had demanded before the war. 
All citizens of a town in alliance with Rome could obtain, by this 
law, the Roman franchise, provided they were at the time resident 
in Italy, and registered their names with the Praetor within sixty 
days.* 

The war was thus virtually brought to a conclusion within two 
years, but 300,000 men, the flower of Rome and Italy, perished in 
this short time. The only nations remaining in arms were the 
Samnites and Lucanians, who still maintained a guerrilla warfare 
in their mountains, and continued to keep possession of the strong 
fortress of Nola, in Campania, from which all the eflforts of Sulla 
failed to dislodge them. 

It now remained to be settled in what way the new citizens were 
to be incorporated in the Roman state. If they were enrolled in 
the thirty-five tribes, they would outnumber the old citizens. It 
was therefore resolved to form ten new tribes, which should consist 
of the new citizens exclusively ; but, before these arrangements 
could be completed, t^e Civil War broke out. 

* A law of the Consul Pompeius bestowed the Latin franchise upon all the cit- 
izens of the Gallic towns between the Po and the Alps, so that they now entered 
into the same relations with Rome as the Latins had formerly held. 




Terracina. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 



FIRST CIVIL WAR. B.C. 



-86. 



One reason T^'hich induced the Senate to bring the Social War 
to a conclusion was the necessity of attacking Mithridates, king of 
rontus, one of the ablest monarchs with whom Rome ever came 
mto contact. The origin and history of this war will be narrated 
in the following chapter. The dispute between Marius and Sulla 
for the command against Mithridates was the occasion of the first 
Civil War ^ The ability which Sulla had displayed in the Social 
War, and his well-known attachment to the Senatorial party, natu- 
rally marked him out as the man to whom this important dignity 
was to be granted. He was accordingly elected Consul for the 
year 88 b.c, with Q. Pompeius Rufus as his colleague; and he 
torthwith received the command of the Mithridatic War But 
Marius had long coveted this distinction ; he quitted the magnifi- 
cent villa which he had built at Misenum, and took up his resi- 
dence at Rome ; and in order to show that neither his a-e nor his 
corpulency had destroyed his vigor, he repaired daily to the Cam- 



182 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXVI. 

pus Martins, and went through the usual exercises with the young 
men. He was determined not to yield without a struggle to his 
hated rival. As he had formerly employed the Tribune Saturni- 
nus to carry out his designs, so now he found an able instrument 
for his purpose in the Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus. Sulpicius was 
one of the greatest orators of the age, and had acquired great influ- 
ence by his splendid talents. He was an intimate friend of the 
Tribune M. Livius Drusus, anji had been himself elected Tribune 
for B.C. 88, through the influence of the Senatorial party, who 
placed great hopes in him ; but, being overwhelmed with debt, he 
now sold himself to Marius, who promised him a liberal share of 
the spoils of the Mithridatic War. Accordingly, Sulpicius brought 
forward a law by which the Italians were to be distributed among 
the thirty-five tribes. As they far outnumbered the old Roman 
citizens, they would have an overwhelming majority in each tribe, 
and would certainly confer upon Marius the command of the Mith- 
ridatic War. To prevent the Tribune from putting these roga- 
tions to the vote, the Consuls declared a justitium, during which 
no business could be legally transacted. But Sulpicius was re- 
solved to carry his point ; with an armed band of followers he en- 
tered the forum and called upon the Consuls to withdraw the justi- 
tium ; and upon their refusal to comply with his demand he order- 
ed his satellites to draw their swords and fall upon them. Pom- 
peius escaped, but his son Quintus, who Avas also the son-in-law of 
Sulla, was killed. Sulla himself took refuge in the house of Ma- 
rius, which was close to the forum, and in order to save his life he 
was obliged to remove the justitium. 

Sulla quitted Rome and hastened to his army, then besieging 
Nola, which was still held by the Samnites (see p. 180). The city 
was now in the hands of Sulpicius and Marius, and the rogations 
passed into law without opposition, as well as a third, conferring 
upon Marius the command of the Mithridatic War. Marius lost 
no time in sending some Tribunes to assume on his behalf the 
command of the army at Nola ; but the soldiers, mIio loved Sulla, 
and who feared that Marius might lead another army to Asia, and 
thus deprive them of their anticipated plunder, stoned his deputies 
to death. Sulla found his soldiers ready to respond to his wishes ; 
they called upon him to lead them to Rome, and deliver the city 
from the tyrants. He therefore hesitated no longer, but at the 
head of six legions broke up from his encampment at Nola, and 
marched toward the city. His officers, however, refused to serve 
against their country, and all quitted him, with the exception of 
one Quaestor. This was the first time that a Roman had ever 
marched at the head of Roman troops against the city. Marius 



13.C.88-8G. FIRST CIVIL WAK. 183 

was taken by surprise. Such was the reverence that the Romans 
entertained for law, that it seems never to have occurred to him 
or to his party that Sulla would venture to draw his sword against 
the state. Marius attempted to gain time for preparations by for- 
Wdding Sulla, in the name of the Republic, to advance any far- 
ther; but the Prastors who carried the command narrowly escaped 
being murdered by the soldiers; and ]\Iarius, as a last resource, 
offered liberty to the slaves who would join him. But it was all 
in vain. Sulla forced his way into the city, and Marius took to 
liight with his son and a few followers. Sulla used his victory 
with moderation. He protected the city from plunder ; and only 
Marius, Sulpicius, and ten others of his bitterest enemies, were de- 
clared public enemies by the Senate. Sulpicius was betrayed by 
one of his slaves and put to death, but Marius and his son succeed- 
ed in making their escape. Marius himself embarked on board a 
ship at Ostia, with a few companions, and then sailed southward 
along the coast of Italy. At Circeii he and his companions were 
obliged to land on account of the violence of the wind and the 
want of provisions. After wandering about for a long time, they 
learned from some peasants that a number of horsemen had been 
in search of them ; and they accordingly turned aside from the 
road, and passed the night in a deep wood in great want. But 
the indomitable spirit of the old man did not fail him ; and he 
consoled himself and encouraged his companions by the assurance 
that he should still live to see his seventh Consulship, in accord- 
ance Avith a prediction that had been made to him in his youth. 
Shortly afterward, when they were near to Minturnge, they de- 
scried a party of horsemen galloping toward them. In great haste 
they hurried down to the sea, and swam off to two merchant ves- 
sels, which received them on board. The horsemen bade the crew 
bring the ship to land or throw Marius overboard ; but, moved by 
his tears and entreaties, they refused to surrender him. The 
sailors soon changed their minds; and, fearing to keep Marius, 
they cast anchor at the mouth of the Liris, where they persuaded 
him to disembark, and rest himself from his fatigues till a wind 
should rise ; but they had no sooner landed him than they imme- 
diately sailed away. Marius was now quite alone amid the swamps 
and marshes through which the Liris flows. With difficulty he 
reached the hut of an old man, who concealed him in a hole near 
the river, and covered him with reeds ; but hearing shortly after- 
ward the noise of his pursuers, he crept out of his hiding-place and 
threw himself into the marsh. He was discovered, and dragged 
out of the water; and, covered with mud, and with a rope round 
his neck, was delivered u]) to the authorities of Minturnaj. 1 he 



184 HISTORY OF KOME. Chap. XXVI. 

magistrates then deliberated whether they should comply with the 
instruction that had been sent from Rome to all the municipal 
towns to put Marius to death as soon as they found him. After 
some consultation they resolved to obey it, and sent a Cimbrian 
slave to carry out their orders. The room in which the old gen- 
eral was confined was dark ; and, to the frightened barbarian, the 
eyes of Mai-ius seemed to dart forth fire, and from the darkness a 
terrible voice shouted out, "Man! durst thou slay C. Marius?" 
The barbarian immediately threw down his sword, and rushed out 
of the house, exclaiming, "I can not kill C. Marius !" Straight- 
way there was a revulsion of feeling among the inhabitants of 
Minturnae. They repented of their ungrateful conduct toward a 
man who had saved Rome and Italy. They got ready a ship for 
his departure, provided him with every thing necessary for the 
voyage, and, with prayers and wishes for his safety, placed him on 
board. The wind carried him to the island of JEnaria (now Is- 
chia), where he found the rest of his friends; and from thence he 
set sail for Africa, which he reached in safety. He landed near 
the site of Carthage, but he had scarcely put his foot on shore be- 
fore the Praetor Sextiliiis sent an ofiicer to bid him leave the coun- 
try, or else he would carry into execution the decree of the Senate. 
This last blow almost unmanned Marius : grief and indignation 
for a time deprived him of speech, and his only reply was, "^Tell 
the Praetor that you have seen C. Marius a fugitive sitting on the 
ruins of Carthage." Shortly afterward Marius was joined by his 
son, and they crossed over to the island of Cercina, where they 
remained unmolested. 

Meantime a revolution had taken place at Rome, which prepared 
the way for the return of Marius to Italy. Sulla's soldiers were 
impatient for the plunder of Asia, and he therefore contented him- 
self with repealing the Sulpician laws. He then sent forward his 
legions to (/apua, tliat they might be ready to embark for Greece, 
but he himself remained in Rome till the Consuls were elected for 
the following year. The candidates whom he recommended were 
rejected, and the choice fell on Cn. Octavius, who belonged to the 
aristocratical party, but was a weak and irresolute man, and on L. 
Cinna, a professed champion of the popular side. Sulla did not 
attempt to oppose their election : to have recalled his legions to 
Rome would have been a dangerous experiment when the soldiers 
were so eager for the spoils of the East ; and he only took the vain 
precaution of making Cinna promise that he would make no at- 
tempt to disturb the existing order of things. But as soon as Sulla 
had quitted Italy, Cinna brought forward again the law of Snlpic- 
ius for incorporating the new Italian citizens among the thirty-five 



B.C. 8G. MARIUS AND CINNA CONSULS. 185 

tribes. The two Consuls had recourse to arms, Octavius to oppose 
and Cinna to carry the law. A dreadful conflict took place in the 
forum. The party of Octavius obtained the victory, and Cinna was 
driven out of the city with great slaughter. But Cinna, by means 
of the new citizens, whose cause he espoused, was soon at the head 
of a formidable army. As soon as Marius heard of these changes 
he set sail from Africa, and offered to serve under Cinna, who glad- 
ly accepted his proposal, and named him Proconsul ; but Marius re- 
fused all marks of honor. The suiferings and pi-ivations he had 
endured had exasperated his proud and haughty spirit almost to 
madness, and nothing but the blood of his enemies could appease 
his resentment. He continued to wear a mean and humble dress, 
and his hair and beard had remained unshorn from the day he had 
been driven out of Rome. After joining Cinna, Marius prosecuted 
the war with great vigor. He first captured the corn-ships, and 
thus cut off Rome from its usual supply of food. He next took 
Ostia and the other towns on the sea-coast, and, moving down the 
Tiber, encamped on the Janiculum. Famine began to rage in the 
city, and the Senate was obliged to yield. They sent a deputation 
to Cinna and Marius, inviting them into the city, but entreating 
them to spare the citizens. Cinna received the deputies sitting in 
his chair of office, and gave them a kind' answer. Marius stood in 
silence by the side of the Consul, but his actions spoke louder than 
words. After the audience was over they entered the city. The 
most frightful scenes followed. The Consul Octavius was slain 
while seated in his curule chair. The streets ran with the noblest 
blood of Rome. Every one whom Marius hated or feared was hunt- 
ed out and put to death ; and no consideration, either of rank, tal- 
ent, or former friendship, induced him to spare the victims of his 
vengeance. The great orator M. Antonius fell by the hands of his 
assassins ; and his former colleague, Q. Catulus, who had triumphed 
with him over the Cimbri, was obliged to put an end to his own life. 
Cinna was soon tired of the butchery ; but the appetite of Marius 
seemed only whetted by the slaughter, and daily required fresh vic- 
tims for its gratification. Without going through the form of an 
election, Marius and Cinna named themselves Consuls for the fol- 
lowing year (b.c. 86), and thus was fulHlled the prediction that Ma- 
rius should be seven times Consul. But he did not long enjoy the 
honor: he was now in his seventy-first year; his body was worn 
out by the fatigues and sufferings he had recently undergone ; and 
on the eighteenth day of his Consulship he died of an attack of 
pleurisy, after a few days' illness. 






Mount Argseus in Cappadocia. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 88-84. 

The kingdom of Pontus, which derived its name from being en 
the coast of the Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea, was originally a sa- 
trapy of the Persian empire, extending from the River Halvs on 
the west to the frontiers of Colchis on the east. Even under the 
later Persian kings the rulers of Pontus were really independent, 
and in the wars of the successors of Alexander the Great it be- 
came a separate kingdom. Most of its kings bore the name of 
Mithridates; and the fifth monarch of this name formed an alli- 
ance with the Romans, and was rewarded with the province of 
Phrygia for the services he had rendered them in the war against 
Aristonicus. He was assassinated about B.C. 120, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Mithridates VI., commonly called the Great, 
who was then only about twelve years of age. His youth was re- 
markable, but much that has been transmitted to us respecting this 
period of his life wears a very suspicious aspect ; it is certain, how- 



B.C. 88-84. FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. 187 

ever, that when he attained to manhood he was not only endowed 
with consummate skill in all martial exercises, and possessed of a 
bodily frame inured to all hardships, but his naturally vigorous in- 
tellect had been improved by careful culture. As a boy he had 
been brought up at Sinope, where he had probably received the el- 
ements of a Greek education, and so powerful was his memory that 
he is said to have learned not less than twenty-five languages, and 
to have been able in the days of his greatest power to transact busi- 
ness with the deputies of every tribe subject to his rule in their own 
peculiar dialect. As soon as he was firmly established on the 
throne he began to turn his arms against the neighboring nations. 
On the west his progress was hemmed in by the power of Rome, 
and the minor sovereigns of Bithynia and Cappadocia enjoyed the 
all-powerful protection of tlie Republic. But on the east his am- 
bition found free scope. He subdued the barbarian tribes between 
the Euxine and the confines of Armenia, including the whole of 
Colchis and the province called Lesser Armenia; and he even 
added to his dominions the Tauric Chersonesus, now called the 
Crimea. The Greek kingdom of Bosphorus, which formed a por- 
tion of the Chersonesus, likewise submitted to his sway. More- 
over, he formed alliances with Tigranes, king of Armenia, to Avhom 
he gave his daughter Cleopatra in marriage, as well as with the 
warlike nations of the Parthians and Iberians. He thus found 
himself in possession of such great power and extensive resources, 
that he began to deem himself equal to a contest with Rome it- 
self. Many causes of dissension had already arisen between them. 
Shortly after his accession, the Romans had taken advantage of his 
minority to wrest from him the province of Phrygia. In B.C. 93 
they resisted his attempt to place upon the throne of Cappadocia 
one of his own nephews, and appointed a Cappadocian named Ari- 
obarzanes to be king of tliat country. For a time Mithridates sub- 
mitted ; but the death of Nicomedes II., king of Bithynia, shortly 
afterward, at length brought matters to a crisis. That monarch 
Avas succeeded by his eldest son, Nicomedes III. ; but Mithridates 
took the opportunity to set up a rival claimant, whose pretensions 
he supported with an army, and quickly drove Kicomedes out of 
Bithynia (b.c. 90). About the same time he openly invaded Cap- 
padocia, and expelled Ariobarzanes from his kingdom, establishing 
his own son Ariarathes in his place. Both the fugitive princes had 
recourse to Rome, where they found ready support ; a decree was 
passed that Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes should be restored to their 
respective kingdoms, and the execution of it was confided to M'. 
Aquillius and L. Cassius. 

Mithridates again yielded, and the two fugitive kings were re- 



188 HISTORY OF HOME. Chap. XXVII. 

stored to their dominions ; but no sooner was Nicomedes replaced 
on the throne of Bithynia than he was urged by the Roman legates 
to invade the territories of Mithridates, into which he made a pred- 
atory incursion. Mithridates offered no resistance, but sent to the 
Romans to demand satisfaction, and it was not until his embassador 
was dismissed with an evasive answer that he prepared for imme- 
diate hostilities (b.c. 88). His first step was to invade Cappado- 
cia, from which he easily expelled Ariobarzanes once more. His 
generals drove Nicomedes out of Bithynia, and defeated Aquillius. 
Mithridates, following up his advantage, not only made himself 
master of Phrygia and Galatia, but invaded the Roman province 
of Asia. Here the universal discontent of the inhabitants, caused 
by the oppression of the Roman governors, enabled him to overrun 
the whole province almost without opposition. The Roman offi- 
cers, who had imprudently brought this danger upon themselves, 
were unable to collect any forces to oppose his progress ; and Aquil- 
lius himself, the chief author of the war, fell into the hands of the 
King of Fontus. Mithridates took up his winter quarters at Per- 
gamus, where he issued the sanguinary order to all the cities of 
Asia to put to death on the same day all the Roman and Italian 
citizens who were to be found within their walls. So hateful had 
the Romans rendered themselves during the short period of their 
dominion, that these commands were obeyed with alacrity by al- 
most all the cities of Asia. Eighty thousand persons are said to 
have perished in this fearful massacre. 

The success of Mithridates encouraged the Athenians to declare 
against Rome, and the king accordingly sent his general Arche- 
laus with a large army and fleet into Greece. Most of the Gre- 
cian states now declared in favor of Mithridates. Such was the 
position of affairs when Sulla landed in Ej)irus in B.C. 87. He im- 
mediately marched southward, and laid siege to Athens and the 
Pirteus, But for many months these towns resisted all his attacks. 
Athens was first taken in the spi'ing of the following year ; and Ar- 
chelaus, despairing of defending the Pir^us any longer, withdrew 
into Boeotia, where he received some powerful re-enforcements 
from Mithridates. Piraeus now fell into the hands of Sulla, and 
both this place and Athens wei-e treated with the utmost bai'barity. 
The soldiers were indulged in indiscriminate slaughter and plun- 
der. Having thus wreaked his vengeance upon the unfortunate 
Athenians, Sulla directed his arms against Archelaus in Boeotia, 
and defeated him with enormous loss at Chasronea. Out of the 
110,000 men of which the Pontic army consisted, Archelaus assem- 
bled only 10,000 at Chalcis, in Euboea, where he had taken refuge. 
Mithridates, on receiving news of this great disaster, immediately 



B.C. 88-84. FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. 



189 



Bet about raising fresh troops, and was soon able to send another 
army of -80,000 men to Euboea. But he now found himself threat- 
ened with danger from a new and unexpected quarter. While Sul- 
la was still occupied in Greece, the party of Marius at Rome had 
sent a fresh army to Asia under the Consul L.Valerius Flaccus to 
carry on the war at once against their foreign and domestic ene- 
mies. Flaccus was murdered by his troops at the instigation of 
Fimbria, who now assumed the command, and gained several vic- 
tories over Mithridates and his generals in Asia (b.c. 85). About 
the same time the new army, which the king had sent to Arche- 
laus in Greece, was defeated by Sulla in the neighborhood of Or- 
chomenus. These repeated disasters made Mithridates anxious 
for peace, but it was not granted by Sulla till the following year 
(B.C. 84), when he had crossed the Hellespont in order to carry on 
the war in Asia. The terms of peace were definitely settled at an 
interview which the Roman general and the Pontic king had at 
Dardanus, in the Troad. Mithridates consented to abandon all his 
conquests in Asia, to restrict himself to the dominions which he 
held before the commencement of the war, or pay a sum of 2000 
talents, and surrender to the Romans a fleet of seventy ships fully 
equipped. Thus terminated the First Mithridatic War. 

Sulla was now at liberty to turn his arms against Fimbria, who 
was with his army at Thyatira, The name of Sulla carried vic- 
tory with it. The troops of Fimbria deserted their general, who 
put an end to his own life. Sulla now prepared to return to Italy. 
After exacting enormous sums from the wealthy cities of Asia, he 
left his legate, L. Licinius Murena, in command of that province, 
with two legions, and set sail with his own army to Athens. While 
preparing for his deadly struggle in Italy, he did not lose his inter- 
est in literature. He carried with him from Athens to Rome the 
valuable library of Apellicon of Teos, which contained most of the 
works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. 




Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia. 




Brundusium. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

SECOND CIVIL WAR. — SULLA's DICTATORSHIP, LEGISLATION, AND 
DEATH. B.C. 83-78. 

Sulla landed at Brundusium in the spring of B.C. 83, in the 
Consulship of L. Scipio and C. Noibanus. During the preceding 
year he had written to the Senate, recounting the serA^ces he had 
rendered to the commonwealth, complaining of the ingratitude 
with which he had been treated, announcing his speedy return to 
Italy, and threatening to take vengeance upon his enemies and 
those of the Republic. The Senate, in alarm, sent an embassy to 
Sulla to endeavor to bring about a reconciliation between him and 
his enemies, and meantime ordered the Consuls Cinna and Carbo 
to desist from levying troops and making farther preparations for 
war. Cinna and Carbo gave no heed to this command; they knew' 
that a reconciliation was impossible, and resolved to carry over an 
army to Dalmatia, in order to oppose Sulla in Greece ; but, after 
one detachment of their troops had embarked, the rest of the sol- 
diers rose in mutiny, and murdered Cinna. The Marian party had 
thus lost their chief leader, but continued nevertheless to make 



B.C. 83. SECOND CIVIL WAR. 191 

every preparation to resist Sulla, for they were well aware that he 
would never forgive them, and that their only choice lay between 
victory and destruction. Besides this the Italians wei-e ready to 
support them, as these new citizens feared that Sulla would de- 
prive them of the riglits which they had lately obtained after so 
much bloodshed. The Marian party had every prospect of victory, 
for their troops far exceeded those of their opponent. They had 
200,000 men in arms, while Sulla landed atBrundusium with only 
30,000, or at the most 40,000 men. But, on the other hand, the 
popular party had no one of sufficient influence and military repu- 
tation to take the supreme command in the war ; their vast forces 
were scattered about Italy, in different armies, under different gen- 
erals ; the soldiers had no confidence in their commanders, and 
no enthusiasm in their cause ; and the consequence was, that whole 
hosts of them deserted to Sulla on the first opportunity. Sulla's 
soldiers, on the contrary, were veterans, who had frequently fought 
by each other's sides, and had acquired that confidence in them- 
selves and in their general which frequent victories always give. 
Still, if the Italians had remained faithful to the cause of the Ma- 
rian party, Sulla would hardly have conquered, and therefore one 
of his first cares after landing at Brundusium was to detach them 
from his enemies. For this purpose he would not allow his troops 
to do any injury to the towns or fields of the Italians in his march 
from Brundusium through Calabria and Apulia, and he formed 
separate treaties with many of the Italian towns, by which he se- 
cured to them all the rights and privileges of Roman citizens which 
they then enjoyed. Among the Italians the Samnites continued 
to be the most formidable enemies of Sulla. They had joined the 
Marian party, not simply with the design of securing the suprem- 
acy for the latter, but with the hope of conquering Rome by their 
means, and then destroying forever their hated oppressor. Thus 
this Civil war became merely another phase of the Social war, and 
the struggle between Rome and Samnium for the supremacy of 
the peninsula was renewed after the subjection of the latter for 
more than two hundred years. 

Sulla marched from Apulia into Campania without meeting with 
any resistance. In Campania he gained his first victory over the 
Consul Norbanus, who was defeated with great loss, and obliged 
to take refuge in Capua. His colleague Scipio, who was at no 
great distance, willingly accepted a truce which Sulla offered him, 
although Sertorius, the ablest of the Marian generals, warned him 
against entering into any negotiations. His caution was justified 
by the event. By means of his emissaries Sulla seduced the troops 
of Scipio, who at length found himself deserted by all his soldiers, 



192 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXVm. 

and was taken prisoner in his tent. Sulla, however, dismissed him 
uninjured. On hearing of this, Carbo is said to have observed "that 
he had to contend in Sulla both with a lion and a fox, but that the 
fox gave him more trouble." Many distinguished Romans mean- 
time had taken up arms on behalf of Sulla. Cn. Pompey, the son 
of Cn.Pompeius Strabo, then only twenty-three years of age, levied 
three legions in Picenum and the surrounding districts ; and Q. 
Metellus Pius, M. Crassus, M. Lucullus, and several others, offered 
their services as legates. It was not, however, till the following 
year (b.c. 82) that the struggle was brought to a decisive issue. 
The Consuls of this year were Cn. Papirius Carbo and the younger 
Marius, the former of whom was intrusted with the protection of 
Etruria and Umbria, while the latter had to guard Rome and La- 
tium, Sulla appears to have passed the winter at Campania. At 
the commencement of spring he advanced against the younger 
Marius, who had concentrated all his forces at Sacriportus, and 
defeated him with great loss. Marius took refuge in Prseneste; 
and Sulla, after leaving Q. Lucretius Ofella with a large force to 
blockade the town, marched with the main body of his army to 
Rome. Marius was resolved not to perish unavenged, and accord- 
ingly, before Sulla could reach Rome, he sent orders to L, Dama- 
sippus, the Prajtor, to put to death all his leading opponents. His 
orders were faithfully obeyed. Q. Mucius SciBvola, the Pontifex 
Maximus and jurist, P. Antistius, L. Domitius, and many other dis- 
tinguished men, were butchered, and their corpses thrown into the 
Tiber. Sulla entered the city without opposition, and marched 
against Carbo, who had been previously opposed by Pompey and 
Metellus. The history of this part of the war is involved in great 
obscurity. Carbo made two efforts to relieve Prseneste, but failed 
in each ; and, after fighting with various fortune against Pompey, 
Metellus, and Sulla, he at length embarked for Africa, despairing 
of farther success in Italy. Meantime Rome had nearly fallen into 
the hands of the enemy. The Samnites and Lucanians, under 
Pontius Telesinus and L. Lamponius, after attempting to relieve 
Prseneste, resolved to march straight upon Rome, which had been 
left without an army for its protection. Snlla arrived barely in 
time to save the city. The battle was fought before the Colline 
Gate ; it was long and obstinately contested ; the combat was not 
simply for the supremacy of a party ; the very existence of Rome 
was at stake, for Pontius had declared that he would raze the city 
to the ground. The left wing, where Sulla commanded in person, 
was driven off the field by the vehemence of the enemy's charge ; 
but the success of the right wing, which was commanded by Cras- 
sus, enabled Sulla to restore the battle, and at length gain a com- 



B.C. 81. SULLA'S DlCTATOliSHir. 193 

plctc victoiy. Fifty thousand men are said to have fallen on each 
side. All the most distinguished leaders of the Marian party ei- 
ther perished in the engagement, or were taken prisoners and put 
to death. Among these was the brave Samnite Pontius, whose 
head was cut off and carried under the walls of Praneste, thereby 
announcing to the young Marius that his last hope of succour was 
gone. To the Samnite prisoners Sulla showed no mercy. He 
was resolved to root out of the peninsula those heroic enemies of 
Rome. On the third day after the battle he collected all the Sam- 
nite and Lucanian prisoners in the Campus Martius, and ordered 
his soldiers to cut them down. The dying shrieks of so many vic- 
tims frightened the Senators, who had been assembled at the same 
time by Sulla in the temple of Bellona ; but he bade them attend 
to what he was saying, and not mind what was taking place outside, 
as he was only chastising some rebels. Prteneste surrendered soon 
afterward. The Romans in the town were pardoned ; but all the 
Samnites and Prjenestines were massacred without mercy. The 
younger Marius put an end to his own life. The war in Italy was 
now virtually at an end, for the few towns which still held out had 
no prospect of offering any effectual opposition, and were reduced 
soon afterward. In other parts of the Roman world the war con- 
tinued still longer, and Sulla did not live to see its completion. 
The armies of the Marian party in Sicily and Africa were subdued 
by Pompey in the course of the same year ; but Sertorius in Spain 
continued to defy all the attempts of the Senate till B.C. 72. 

Sulla was now master of Rome. He had not commenced the 
Civil war, but had been driven to it by the mad ambition of Ma- 
rius. His enemies had attempted to deprive him of the command 
in the Mithridatic war, which had been legally conferred upon him 
by the Senate ; and while he was fighting the battles of the Repub- 
lic they had declared him a public enemy, confiscated his property, 
and murdered the most distinguished of his friends and adherents. 
For all these wrongs Sulla had threatened to take the most ample 
vengeance ; and he more than redeemed his word. He resolved to 
extirpate the popular party root and branch. One of his first acts 
was to draw up a list of his enemies who were to be put to death, 
which list was exhibited in the forum to public inspection, and 
called a Proscriptio. It was the first instance of the kind in ]^o- 
man history. All persons in this list were outlaws who might be 
killed by any one with impunity ; their property was confiscated 
to the state ; their children and grandchildren lost their votes in 
tlie comitia, and were excluded from all public offices. Farther, 
all who killed a proscribed person, or indicated the place of his con- 
cealment, received two talents as a reward, and whoever sheltered 

N 



194 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap.XXVIII. 

such a person was punished with death. Terror now reigned not 
only at Rome, but throughout Italy. Fresh lists of the proscribed 
constantly appeai'ed. No one was safe ; for Sulla gratified his 
friends by placing in the fatal lists their personal enemies, or per- 
sons whose property was coveted by his adherents. An estate, a 
house, or even a piece of plate, was to many a man, who belonged 
to no political party, his death-warrant; for, although the confis- 
cated property belonged to the state, and had to be sold by public 
auction, the friends and dependents of Sulla purchased it at a nom- 
inal price, as no one dared to bid against them. Oftentimes Sul- 
la did not require the purchase-money to be paid at all, and in 
many cases he gave such property to his favorites without even the 
formality of a sale. The number of persons who perished by the 
proscriptions amounted to many thousands At the commence- 
ment of these horrors Sulla had been appointed Dictator. As both 
the Consuls had perished, he caused the Senate to elect Valerius 
Flaccus interrex, and the latter brought before the people a rogatio, 
conferring the Dictatorship upon Sulla, for the purpose of restoring 
order to the Republic, and for as long a time as he judged to be 
necessary. Thus the Dictatorship was revived after being in abey- 
ance for more than 120 years, and Sulla obtained absolute power 
over the lives and fortunes of all the citizens. This was toward 
the close of b.c. 81. Sulla's great object in being invested with 
the Dictatorship was to carry into execution in a legal manner the 
great reforms Avhich he meditated in the constitution and the ad- 
ministration of justice, by which he hoped to place the government 
of the Republic on a firm and secure basis. He had no intention 
of abolisl)ing the Republic, and consequently he caused Consuls to 
be elected for the following year, b.c. 81, and was elected to the 
office himself in b.c. 80, while he continued to hold the Dictator- 
ship. 

At the beginning of b.c. 81 Sulla celebrated a splendid triumph 
on account of his victory over Mithridates. In a speech which he 
delivered to the people at the close of the gorgeous ceremony, he 
claimed for himself the surname of Felix, as he attributed his suc- 
cess in life to the favor of the gods. All ranks in Rome bowed in 
awe before their master; and among other marks of distinction 
which were voted to him by the obsequious Senate, a gilt eques- 
trian statue was erected to his honor before the Rostra, bearing the 
inscription "Cornelio Sullae Imperatori Felici." 

During the years b.c. 80 and 79 Sulla carried into execution his 
various reforms in the constitution, of which an account is given 
at the end of this chapter. At the same time he established many 
military colonies throughout Italy. The inhabitants of the Italian 



B.C. 80-79. SULLA'S REFORMS. 195 

towns which had fought against Sulla were depriv'ed of the full Ro- 
man franchise which had been lately conferred upon them ; their 
lands were confiscated and given to the soldiers Avho had fought 
under him. A great number of these colonies were settled in 
Etruria. They had the strongest interest in upholding the institu- 
tions of Sulla, since any attempt to invalidate the latter would have 
endangered their newly-acquired possessions. But, though they 
were a support to the power of Sulla, they hastened the fall of the 
commonwealth ; an idle and licentious soldiery supplanted an in- 
dustrious agricultural population ; and Catiline found nowhere more 
adherents than among the military colonies of Sulla. While Sulla 
thus established throughout Italy a population devoted to his inter- 
ests, he created at Rome a kind of body-guard for his protection by 
giving the citizenship to a great number of slaves belonging to those 
who had been proscribed by him. The slaves thus rewarded are 
said to have been as many as 10,000, and were called Cornelii after 
him as their patron. 

Sulla had completed his reforms by the beginning of B.C. 79 ; 
and as he longed for the undisturbed enjoyment of his pleasures, 
he resigned his Dictatorship, and declared himself ready to render 
an account of his conduct while in office. This voluntary abdica- 
tion by Sulla of the sovereignty of the Roman world has excited, the 
astonishment and admiration of both ancient and modern writers. 
But it is evident that Sulla never contemplated, like Julius Ceesar, 
the establishment of a monarchical form of government; and it 
must be recollected that he could retire into a private station with- 
out any fear that attempts would be made against his life or his in- 
stitutions. The ten thousand Cornelii at Rome and his veterans 
stationed throughout Italy, as well as the whole strength of the 
aristocrat! cal party, secured him against all danger. Even in his 
retirement his will was law, and shoi'tly before his death he order- 
ed his slaves to strangle a magistrate of one of the towns in Italy 
because he was a public defaulter. 

After resigning his Dictatorship, Sulla retired to his estate at 
Puteoli, and there, surrounded by the beauties of nature and art, 
he passed the remainder of his life in those literary and sensual 
enjoyments in which he had always taken so much pleasure. He 
died in b.c. 78, in the sixtieth year of his age. The immediate cause 
of his death was the rupture of a blood-vessel, but some time before 
he had been suffering from the disgusting disease which is known 
in modern times by the name of Morbus Pediculosus. The Sen- 
ate, faithful to the last, resolved to give him the honor of a public 
funeral. This was, however, opposed by the Consul Lepidus, who 
had resolved to attempt the repeal of Sulla's laws ; but the Dicta- 



196 HISTORY OF HOME. Chap. XXVIII. 

tor's power continued unshaken even after his death. The veter- 
ans were summoned from their colonies, and Q. Catulus, L. Lucul- 
lus, and Cn. Pompey placed themselves at their head. Lepidus was 
obliged to give way, and allowed the funeral to take place without 
interruption. It was a gorgeous pageant. The Magistrates, the 
Senate, the Equites, the Priests, and the Vestal virgins, as well as 
the veterans, accompanied the funeral procession to the Campus 
Martins, where the corpse was burnt according to the wish of Sulla 
himself, who feared that his enemies might insult his remains, as 
he had done those of Marius, which had been taken out of the grave 
and thrown into the Anio at his command. It had been previously 
the custom of the Cornelia gens to bury and not burn their dead. 
A monument was erected to Sulla in the Campus Martins, the in- 
scription on which he is said to have composed himself. It stated 
that none of his friends ever did him a kindness, and none of his 
enemies a wrong, without being fully repaid. 

All the reforms of Sulla were effected by means o^ Leges, which 
were proposed by him in the Comitia Centuriata, and bore the gen- 
eral name of Leges Cornelice. They may be divided into four class- 
es : laws relating to the constitution, to the ecclesiastical corpora- 
tions, to the administration of justice, and to the improvement of 
public morals. Their general object and design was to restore, as 
far as possible, the ancient Roman Constitution, and to give again 
to the Senate and the Nobility that power of which they had been 
gradually deprived by the leaders of the popular party. His Con- 
stitution did not last, because the aristocracy were thoroughly self- 
ish and corrujit, and exercised the power which Sulla had intrusted 
to them only for tlieir own aggrandizement. Their shameless con- 
duct soon disgusted the provinces as well as the capital ; the peo- 
ple again regained their power, but the consequence was an anarchy 
and not a government ; and as neither class was fit to rule, they 
were obliged to submit to the dominion of a single man. Thus 
the empire became a necessity to the exhausted Roman world. 

I. T^aics relating to the Constitution. — Sulla deprived the Comi- 
tia Tributa of their legislative and judicial powers ; but he allowed 
them to elect the Tribunes, ^diles, Quaestors, and other inferior 
magistrates. This seems to have been the only purpose for which 
they were called together. The Comitia Centuriata, on the other 
hand, were allowed to retain their right of legislation unimpaired. 
He restored, however, the ancient regulation, which had fallen into 
desuetude, that no matter should be brought before them without 
the previous sanction of a senatus cousultum. 



B.C. 80-79. SULLA'S LEGISLATION. 197 

The Senate had been so much reduced in numbers by the pro- 
scriptions of Sulla, that he was obliged to fill up the vacancies by 
the election of three hundred new members. But he made no al- 
teration in their duties and functions, as the whole administration 
of the state was in their hands ; and he gave them the initiative 
in legislation by requiring a previous senatus consultura respecting 
all measures that were to be submitted to the Comitia, as already 
stated. 

With respect to the magistrates, Sulla increased the number of 
Quaestors from eight to twenty, and of Prretors from six to eight. 
He renewed the old law that no one should hold the Pra?torship be- 
fore he had been Quaestor, nor the Consulship before he had been 
Praetor. He also renewed the law that no one should be elected 
to the same magistracy till after the expiration of ten years. 

One of the most important of Sulla's reforms related to the Trib- 
unate, which he deprived of all real power. He took away from 
the Tribunes the right of proposing a rogation of any kind to the 
Tribes, or of impeaching any person before them ; and he appears 
to have limited the right of intercession to their giving protection 
to private persons against the unjust decisions of magistrates, as, 
for instance, in the enlisting of soldier^. To degrade the Tribunate 
still lower, Sulla enacted that whoever had held this office forfeit- 
ed thereby all right to become a candidate for any of the higher 
curule offices, in order that all persons of rank, talent, and wealth 
might be deterred from holding an office which would be a fatal 
impediment to rising any higher in the state. He also required 
persons to be Senators before they could become Tribunes. 

II. Laws relating to the Ecclesiastical Corporations. — Sulla re- 
pealed the Lex Domitia, which gave to the Comitia Tributa the 
right of electing the members of the great ecclesiastical corpora- 
tions, and restored to the latter the right of co-optatio, or self-elec- 
tion. At the same time, he increased the number of Pontiffs and 
Augurs to fifteen respectively. 

III. Laws relating to the Administration of Justice. — Sulla estab- 
lished permanent courts for the trial of particular offenses, in each 
of which a Prtetor presided. A precedent for this had been given 
by the Lex Calpurnia of the Tribune L. Calpurnius Piso, in B.C. 
149, by which it was enacted that a Prtetor should preside at all 
trials for Repetundae during his year of office. This was called a 
Qua'siio Perpetua, and nine such Qncestiones Perpettioi were estab- 
lished by Sulla, namely, De Repetundis, Majestatis, De Sicariis et 
Veneficis, De Parricidio, Peculatus, Ambitus, De Nummis Adulter- 



198 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXVIII. 

inis, De Falsis or Testamentaria, and De Vi Publica. Jurisdic- 
tion in civil cases was left to the Prsetor Peregrinus and the Pras- 
tor Urbanus as before, and the otber six Praetors presided in the 
Quffistiones ; but as the latter were more in number than the Pr£e- 
tors, some of the Praetors took more than one Queestio, or a Judex 
Quaestionis was appointed. The Praetors, after their election, had 
to draw lots for their several jurisdictions. Sulla enacted that the 
Judices should be taken exclusively from the Senators, and not 
from the Equites, the latter of whom had possessed this privilege, 
with a few interruptions, from the law of C. Gracchus, in b.c. 123. 
This was a great gain for the aristocracy, since the offenses for 
which they were usually brought to trial, such as bribery, malver- 
sation, and the like, were so commonly practiced by the whole or- 
der, that they were, in most cases, nearly certain of acquittal from 
men who required similar indulgence themselves. 

Sulla's reform in the criminal law, the greatest and most endur- 
ing part of his legislation, belongs to a history of Roman law, and 
can not be given here. 

IV. Laics relating to the Improvement of Public Morals. — Of 
these we have very little information. One of them was a Lex 
Sumtuaria, which enacted that not more than a certain sum of 
money should be spent upon entertainments, and also restrained 
extravagance in funerals. There was likewise a law of Sulla re- 
specting marriage, the provisions of which are quite unknown, as 
it was probably abrogated by the Julian law of Augustus. 




Coin of Sulla. 

On the obverse is the head of Sulla ; on the reverse that of Q. Pompeius Rufus, his colleague in 
bis first Consulship. 




Cn. Pompeius Magnus. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND 
CRASSUS. B.C. 78-70. 

Sulla was scarcely dead before an attempt was made to over- 
throw the aristocratic constitution which he had established. The 
Consul M. Lepidus had already, as we have seen, endeavored to 
prevent the burial of Sulla in the Campus Martins. He now pro- 
posed to repeal the Dictator's laws ; but the other Consul, Q. Cat- 
ulus, remained firm to the aristocracy, and offered the most stren- 
uous opposition to the measures of his colleague. Shortly after- 
ward the Senate ordered Lepidus to repair to Farther Gaul, which 
had been assigned to him as his ProAince ; but he availed himself 
of the opportunity to collect an army in Etruria, and at the begin- 
ning of the following year marched straight upon Rome. The 
Senate assembled an army, which they placed under the command 
of Q. Catulus, with Pompey as his lieutenant. A battle was fought 
near the Mulvian bridge, in which Lepidus was defeated, and, find- 



200 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXIX. 

ing it impossible to maintain his footing in Italy, he sailed with 
the remainder of his forces to Sardinia, where he died soon after- 
ward. 

Meantime the remainder of the Marian party found refuge in 
Spain. Q. Sertorius, one of the ablest of their generals, had re- 
ceived the government of this country in the year B.C. 82. He 
soon acquired an extraordinary ascendency over the minds of the 
natives, and flattered them with the hope of establishing an inde- 
pendent state which might bid defiance to Rome. His influence 
was enhanced by the superstition of the people. He was accom- 
panied on all occasions by a tame fawn, which they believed to be 
a familiar spirit. So attached did they become to his person, that 
he found no difficulty in collecting a formidable army, which for 
some years successfully opposed all the power of Rome. After de- 
feating several generals whom Sulla had sent against him, he had 
to encounter, in B.C. 79, Q. Metellus, who had been Consul the pre- 
vious year with Sulla. But Metellus did not fare much better 
than his predecessors ; and in b.c. 78 Sertorius was re-enforced by 
a considerable body of troops which Ferperna carried with him 
into Spain after the defeat of Lepidus. The growing power of 
Sertorius led the Senate to send Pompey to the assistance of Me- 
tellus. Fompey, though only 30 years of age, was already regai-d- 
ed as the ablest general of the Republic ; and as he played such a 
prominent part in the later history, we may here pause to give a 
brief account of his early career. 

Pompey was born b.c. 106, and was, as we have already seen, 
the son of Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who fought against the Italians in 
his Consulship, b.c. 89. The young Pompey served under his fa- 
ther in this war, when he was only 17 years of age, and continued 
with him till his death two years afterward. He was present at 
the battle of the Colline Gate in B.C. 87, and shortly afterward he 
saved the life of his father, and quelled an insurrection of the sol- 
diers by his courage and activity. As soon as Sulla had finished 
the Mithridatic war, and was on his way to Italy, Pompey, instead 
of waiting, like the other leaders of the aristocracy, for the arrival 
of their chief, resolved to share with him the glory of crushing the 
Marian party. Accordingly, he proceeded to levy troops in Pice- 
num without holding any public office ; and such was his personal 
influence that he was able to raise an army of three legions. Be- 
fore joining Sulla he gained a brilliant victory over the Marian 
generals, and was received by Sulla with the greatest distinction. 
Upon the conclusion of the war in Italy Pompey was sent first into 
Sicily, and afterward into Africa, where the Marian party still held 
out. His success was rapid and decisive. In a few months he 



B.C. 76. POMPEY IN SPAIN. 201 

reduced the whole of Numidia, and, unlike other Roman governors, 
abstained from plundering the province. His military achieve- 
ments and his incorruptibility procured him the greatest renown, 
and he returned to Rome covered with glory (b.c. 80). Numbers 
flocked out of the city to meet him ; and the Dictator himself, who 
formed one of the crowd, greeted him with the surname of Mag- 
nus or the Great, which he bore ever afterward. Sulla at first 
refused to let him triumph. Hitherto no one but a Dictator, Con- 
sul, or PrtEtor had enjoyed this distinction ; but as Pompey insist- 
ed upon the honor, Sulla gave way, and the young general entered 
Rome in triumph as a simple Eques, and before he had completed 
his 25th year. 

Pompey again exhibited his power in promoting, in B.C. 79, the 
election of M. ^milius Lepidus to the Consulship, in opposition to 
the wishes of Sulla. The latter had now retired from public af- 
fairs, and contented himself with warning Pompey, as he met him 
returning from the comitia in triumph, " Young man, it is time for 
you not to slumber, for you have strengthened your rival against 
yourself." Lepidus seems to have reckoned upon the support of 
Pompey ; but in this he was disappointed, for Pompey remained 
faithful to the aristocracy, and thus saved his party. He fought 
at the Mulvian bridge against Lepidus, as we have already related, 
and afterward marched into Cisalpine Gaul against the remains of 
his party. The Senate, who now began to dread Pompey, ordered 
him to disband his army; but he found various excuses for evad- 
ing this command, as he was anxious to obtain the command of the 
war against Sertorius in Spain. They hesitated, however, to give 
him this opportunity for gaining fresh distinction and additional 
power ; and it was only in consequence of the increasing power of 
Sertorius that they at length unwillingly determined to send Pom- 
pey to Spain, with the title of Proconsul, and with powers equal to 
Metellus. 

Pompey arrived in Spain in b.c. 76. He soon foimd that he had 
a more formidable enemy to deal with than any he had yet encoun- 
tered. He suffered several defeats, and, though he gained some 
advantages, yet such were his losses that at the end of two years 
he was obliged to send to Rome for re-enforcements. The war 
continued three years longer; but Sertorius, who had lost some of 
his influence over the Spanish tribes, and who had become an ob- 
ject of jealousy to M. Perperna and his principal Roman officers, 
was unable to carry on operations with the same vigor as during 
the two preceding years. Pompey accordingly gained some ad- 
vantages over him, but the war was still far from a close ; and the 
genius of Sertorius would probably have soon given a very differ- 



202 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXIX. 

ent aspect to affairs had he not been assassinated by Perperna in 
B.C. 72. Perperna had flattered himself that he should succeed to 
the power of Sertorius ; but he soon found that he had murdered 
the only man who was able to save him from ruin. In his first 
battle with Pompey he Avas completely defeated, his principal offi- 
cers slain, and himself taken prisoner. Anxious to save his life, 
he offei-ed to deliver up to Pompey the papers of Sertorius, contain- 
ing letters from many of the leading men at Rome. But Pompey 
refused to see him, and commanded the letters to be burnt. The 
war was now virtually at an end, and the remainder of the year 
was employed in subduing the towns which still held out against 
Pompey. Metellus had taken no part in the final struggle with 
Perperna, and Pompey thus obtained the credit of bringing the 
war to a conclusion. The people longed for his return, that he 
might deliver Italy from Spartacus and his horde of gladiators, who 
had defeated the Consuls, and were in possession of a great part 
of the peninsula. 

A righteous retribution had overtaken the Romans for their love 
of the cruel sports of the amphitheatre. The gladiators were gen- 
erally prisoners taken in war, and sold to persons who trained them 
in schools for the Roman games. There was such a school at 
Capua, and among the gladiators was a Thracian of the name of 
Spartacus, originally a chief of banditti, who had been taken pris- 
oner by the Romans, and was now destined to be butchered for 
their amusement. Having prevailed upon about 70 of his com- 
rades, he burst out of the school with them, succeeded in obtaining 
arms, and took refuge in the crater of Vesuvius, at that time an ex- 
tinct volcano (b.c, 73). Here he was soon joined by large numbers 
of slaves, Avho flocked to him from all quarters. He was soon at 
the head of a formidable army. The desolation of the Social and 
Civil Wars had depopulated Italy, while the employment of slave- 
labor furnished Spartacus with an endless supply of soldiers. In 
addition to this, the war with Sertorius was not yet finished, and 
that with Mithridates, of which we shall speak presently, had al- 
ready commenced. For upward of two years Spartacus was mas- 
ter of Italy, which he laid waste from the foot of the Alps to the 
southernmost corner of the peninsula. In b.c. 72 he found him- 
self at the head of 100,000 men, and defeated both Consuls. As 
the Consuls of the following year had no military reputation, the 
conduct of the war was intrusted to the Prsetor, M. Licinius Cras- 
sus, Avho had greatly distinguished himself in the wars of Sulla. He 
had been rewarded by the Dictator with donations of confiscated 
]>roperty, and had accumulated an immense fortune. Six legions 
were now given him in addition to the remains of the Consular 



B.C. 70. POMPEY AND CRASSUS CONSULS. 203 

armies already in the field. The Roman troops were disheartened 
and disorganized by defeat, but Crassus restored discipline by deci- 
mating the soldiers. Spartacus was driven to the extreme point 
of Bruttium. Crassus drew strong lines of circumvallation around 
Rhegium, and by his superior numbers prevented the escape of the 
slaves. Spartacus now attempted to pass over to Sicily, where he 
would have been welcomed by thousands of followers. He failed 
in the attempt to cross the straits, but at length succeeded in forc- 
ing his way through the lines of Crassus. The Roman general 
hastened in pursuit, and in Lucania fell in with the main body of 
the fugitives. A desperate battle ensued, in which Spartacus per- 
ished, with the greater part of his followers. About 6000 were 
taken prisoners, whom Crassus impaled on each side of the Appian 
road between Rome and Capua. A body of 5000 made their way 
northward, whom Pompey met as he was returning from Spain, 
and cut to pieces. Crassus had, in reality, brought the war to an 
end, but Pompey took the credit to himself, and wrote to the Sen- 
ate, saying, " Crassus, indeed, has defeated the enemy, but I have 
extirpated them by the roots." 

Pompey and Crassus now approached the city at the head of 
their armies, and each laid claim to the Consulship. Neither of 
them was qualified by the laws of Sulla. Pompey was only in his 
35th year, and had not even held the office of Qusestor. Crassus 
was still Prcetor, and two years ought to elapse before he could be- 
come Consul. Pompey, however, agreed to support the claims of 
Crassus, and the Senate dared not offer open opposition to two 
generals at the head of powerful armies. Pompey, moreover, de- 
clared himself the advocate of the popular rights, and promised to 
restore the Tribunitian power. Accordingly, they were elected 
Consuls for the following year. Pompey entered the city in tri- 
umph on the 31st of December, b.c. 71, and Crassus enjoyed the 
honor of an ovation. 

The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus (b.c. 70) was memora- 
ble for the repeal of the most important portions of Sulla's consti- 
tutional reforms. One of Pompey's first acts was to redeem the 
pledge he had given to the people, by bringing forward a law for 
the restoration of the Tribunitian power. The law was passed 
with little opposition ; for the Senate felt that it was worse than 
useless to contend against Pompey, supported as he was by the pop- 
ular enthusiasm and by his troops, which were still in the immedi- 
ate neighborhood of the city. He also struck another blow at the 
aristocracy. By one of Sulla's laws, the Judices, during the last 
ten years, had been chosen from the Senate. The corruption and 
venality of the latter in the administration of justice had excited 



204 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



Chap. XXIX. 



such general indignation that some change was clamorously de- 
manded by the people. Accordingly, the Preetor L. Aurelius Got- 
ta, with the approbation of Pompey, proposed a law by which the 
Judices were to be taken in future from the Senate, Equites, and 
Tribuni -^rarii, the latter probably representing the wealthier mem- 
bers of the third order in the state. This law was likewise car- 
ried ; but it did not improve the purity of the administration of 
justice, since corruption was not confined to the Senators, but per- 
vaded all classes of the community alike. Pompey had thus bro- 
ken with the aristocracy, and had become the great popular hero. 
In carrying both these measures he was strongly supported by Cae- 
sar, who, though he was rapidly rising in popular favor, could as 
yet only hope to weaken the power of the aristocracy through Pora- 
pey's means. 




Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Romo. 




Coin of Mithridates. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 74-61. 

When Sulla returned to Italy after the First Mithridatic War, 
he left L. Murena, with two legions, to hold the command in Asia. 
Murena, who was eager for some opportunity of earning the honor 
of a triumph, pretending that Mithridates had not yet evacuated 
the whole of Cappadocia, not only marched into that country, but 
even crossed the Halys, and laid waste the plains of Pontus itself 
(B.C. 83). To this flagrant breach of the treaty so lately concluded 
the Roman general was in great measure instigated by Archelaus, 
who, flnding himself regarded with suspicion by Mithridates, had 
consulted his safety by flight, and was received with the utmost 
honors by the Romans. Mithridates, who was wholly unprepared 
to renew the contest with Rome, offered no opposition to the prog- 
ress of Murena ; but finding that general disregard his remon- 
strances, he sent to Rome to complain of his aggression. When, 
in the following spring (b.c. 82), he saw Murena preparing to re- 
new his hostile incursions, he at once determined to oppose him by 
force, and assembled a large army, with which he met the Roman 
general on the banks of the Halys. The action that ensued term- 
inated in the complete victory of the king, and Murena, with dif- 
ficulty, effected his retreat into Phrygia, leaving Cappadocia at the 
mercy of Mithridates, who quickly overran the whole province. 
Shortly afterward A. Gabinius arrived in Asia, bringing perempto- 
ry orders from Sulla to Murena to desist from hostilities, where- 
ui)on Mithridates once more consented to evacuate Cappadocia. 
Thus ended what is commonly called the Second Mithridatic War. 

Notwithstanding the interjiosition of Sulla, Mithridates was well 
aware that the peace between him and Rome was in fact only sus- 



206 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXX. 

pension of hostilities, and that the haughty Repuhlic would never 
suffer the massacre of her citizens in Asia to remain ultimately un- 
punished. Hence all his effurts were directed toward the forma- 
tion of an army capable of contending, not only in numbers, but in 
discipline, with those of Rome ; and with this view he armed his 
barbarian troops after the Roman fashion, and endeavored to train 
them up in that discipline of which he had so strongly felt the ef- 
fect in the preceding contest. In these attempts he was doubtless 
assisted by the refugees of the Marian party, who had accompanied 
Fimbria into Asia, and on the defeat of that general by Sulla had 
taken refuge with the King of Pontus. At their instigation, also, 
Mithridates sent an embassy to Sertorius, who was still maintaining 
his ground in Spain, and concluded an alliance with him against 
their common enemies. But it was the death of Nicomedes III., 
king of Bithynia, at the beginning of B.C. 74, that brought matters 
to a crisis, and became the immediate occasion of the war which 
both parties had long felt to be inevitable. That monarch left his 
dominions by will to the Roman people, and Bithynia was accord- 
ingly declared a Roman province ; but Mithridates asserted that 
the late king had left a legitimate son by his wife Nysa, whose pre- 
tensions he immediately prepared to support by his arms. 

The forces with which Mithridates was now prepared to take 
the field were such as might inspire him with no unreasonable con- 
fidence of victory. He had assembled an array of 120,000 foot- 
soldiers, armed and disciplined in the Roman manner, and 16,000 
horse, besides a hundred scythed chariots. His fleet, also, was so 
far superior to any that the Romans could oppose to him as to 
give him the almost undisputed command of the sea. These prep- 
arations, however, appear to have delayed him so long that the 
season was far advanced before he was able to take the field, and 
both the Roman Consuls, L. Licinius Lucullus and M. Aurelius 
Cotta, had arrived in Asia. Neither of them, however, was able to 
oppose his first irruption. He traversed almost the whole of Bi- 
thynia without encountering any resistance; and when at length 
Cotta ventured to give him battle under the walls of Chalcedon, his 
army and fleet were totally defeated. Mithridates now proceeded 
to lay siege to Cyzicus both by sea and land. But Lucullus, who 
had advanced from Phrvgia to the relief of Cotta, and followed 
Mithridates to Cyzicus, took possession of an advantageous posi- 
tion near the camp of the king, where he almost entirely cut him 
off from receiving supplies by land, while the storms of the winter 
prevented him from depending on those by sea. Hence it was not 
long before famine began to make itself felt in the camp of Mith- 
ridates, and all his assaults upon the city having been foiled by the 



B.C. 74-61. THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR. 



207 



courage and resolution of the besieged, he was at length compelled 
(early in the year B.C. 73) to abandon the enterprise and raise the 
siege. In his retreat he was repeatedly attacked by the Roman 
general, and suffered very heavy loss at the passage of the iEsepus 
and Granicus. By the close of the year the great anny with which 
he had commenced the war was annihilated, and he was not only 
compelled to retire within his own dominions, but was without the 
means of opposing the advance of Lucullus into the heart of Pon- 
tus itself. But he now again set to work with indefatigable activ- 
ity to raise a fresh army ; and while he left the whole of the sea- 
coast of Pontus open to the invaders, he established himself in the 
interior at Cabira. Here he was again defeated by Lucullus ; and 
despairing of opposing the farther progress of the Romans, he fled 
into Armenia to claim the protection and assistance of his son-in- 
law Tigranes. 




Coin of Tigranes. 

Tigranes was at this moment the most powerful monarch of 
Asia, but he appears to have been unwilling to engage openly in 
war with Rome ; and on this account, while he received the fugi- 
tive monarch in a friendly manner, he refused to admit him to his 
presence, and showed no disposition to attempt his restoration. 
But the arrogance of the Romans brought about a change in his 
policy; and Tigranes, offended at the haughty conduct of Appius 
Claudius, whom Lucullus had sent to demand the surrender of 
Mithridates, not only refused this request, but determined at once 
to prepare for war. 

While Lucullus was waiting for the return of Claudius, he de- 
voted his attention to the settlement of the affairs of Asia, which 
was suffering severely from the oppressions of the farmers of the 
public taxes. By various judicious regulations he put a stop to 
their exactions, and earned the gratitude of the cities of Asia; 
but at the same time he brought upon himself the enmity of the 
Equites, who were the farmers of the revenue. They were loud 



208 HISTORY OF KOME. Chap. XXX. 

against him in their complaints at Rome, and by their continued 
clamors undoubtedly prepared the way for his ultimate recall. 

Meanwhile community of interests between Mithridates and Ti- 
granes had led to a complete reconciliation between them, and the 
Rontic king, who had spent a year and eight months in the domin- 
ions of his son-in-law without being admitted to a personal inter- 
view, was now made to participate in all the councils of Tigranes, 
and appointed to levy an army to unite in the war. But it was in 
vain that in the ensuing campaign (b.c. 69) he urged upon his son- 
in-law the lessons of his own experience, and advised him to shun 
a regular action with Lucullus : Tigranes, confident in the multi- 
tude of his forces, gave battle at Tigranocerta, and was defeated, 
before Mithridates had been able to join him. But this disaster, so 
precisely in accordance with the warnings of Mithridates, served to 
raise the latter so high in the estimation of Tigranes, that from 
this time forward the whole conduct of the war was intrusted to 
the direction of the King of Pontus. 

In the following svimmer (b.c. 68) Lucullus crossed the Taurus, 
penetrated into the heart of Armenia, and again defeated the allied 
monarchs near the city of Artaxata. But the early severity of the 
season, and the discontent of his own troops, checked the farther 
advance of the Roman general, who turned aside into Mesopota- 
mia. Here Mithridates left him to lay siege to the fortress of Ni- 
sibis, which was supposed to be impregnable, while he himself took 
advantage of his absence to invade Pontus at the head of a large 
army, and endeavor to regain possession of his former dominions. 
The defense of Pontus was confided to Fabius, one of the lieuten- 
ants of Lucullus ; but the oppression of the Romans had excited a 
general spirit of disaffection, and the people crowded around the 
standard of Mithridates. Fabius was totally defeated, and com- 
pelled to shut himself up in the fortress of Cabira. In the follow- 
ing spring (B.C. 67), Triarius, another of the Roman generals, was 
also defeated with immense loss. The bloAv was one of the sever- 
est which the Roman arms had sustained for a long period : 7000 
of their troops fell, among whom were an unprecedented number 
of officers, and their camp itself was taken. 

The advance of Lucullus himself from Mesopotamia prevented 
Mithridates from following up his advantage, and he withdrew into 
Lesser Armenia, where he took up a strong position to await the 
approach of Tigranes. But the farther proceedings of Lucullus 
were paralyzed by the mutinous and disaffected spirit of his own 
soldiers. Their discontents were fostered by P. Clodius, wliose tur- 
bulent and restless spirit already showed itself in its full force, and 
were encouraged by reports from Rome, where the demagogues 



B.C. 66. POMPEY SUPERSEDES LUCULLUS. 209 

who were ftivorable to Pompey, or had been gained over by the 
Equestrian party, were loud in their clamors against Lucullus. 
They accused him of protracting the war for his own personal ob- 
jects, either of ambition or avarice; and the soldiery, whose appe- 
tite for plunder had been often checked by Lucullus, readily joined 
in the outcry. Accordingly, on the arrival of Tigranes, the two 
monarchs found themselves able to overrun almost the whole of 
Pontus and Cappadocia without opposition. 

Such was the state of affairs when ten legates arrived in Asia 
to reduce Pontus to the form of a Roman province, and they had, 
in consequence, to report to the Senate that the country supposed 
to be conquered was again in the hands of the enemy. The ad- 
versaries of Lucullus naturally availed themselves of so favorable 
an occasion, and a decree was passed transferring to M. Acilius 
Glabrio, one of the Consuls for the year, the province of Bithynia, 
and the command against Mithridates. But Glabrio was wholly 
incompetent for the task assigned to him. On arriving in Bithynia 
he made no attempt to assume the command, but remained within 
the confines of his province, while he still fartlier embarrassed the 
position of Lucullus by issuing proclamations to his soldiers, an- 
nouncing to them that their general was superseded, and releasing 
them from their obedience. Before the close of the year (b.c. 67) 
Lucullus had the mortification of seeing Mithridates established 
once more in the possession of his hereditary dominions. But it 
was still more galling to his feelings when, in the spring of the fol- 
lowing year (b.c. 66), he was called upon to resign the command 
to Pompey, who had just brought to a successful termination the 
war against the pirates. 

The Mediterranean Sea had long been swarming with pirates. 
From the earliest times piracy has more or less prevailed in this 
sea, which, lying between three continents, and abounding with 
numerous creeks and islands, presents at the same time both the 
greatest temptations and the greatest facilities for piratical pur- 
suits. Moreover, in consequence of the Social and Civil wars, and 
the absence of any fleet to preserve order upon the sea, piracy had 
reached an alarming height. The pirates possessed fleets in all 
parts of the Mediterranean, were in the habit of plundering the 
most wealthy cities on the coasts, and had at length carried their 
audacity so fiir as to make descents upon the Appian Road, and 
carry off Roman magistrates, with their lictors. All communica- 
tion between Rome and the provinces was cut off, or at least ren- 
dered extremely dangerous ; the fleets of corn-vessels, upon which 
Rome to a great extent depended for its subsistence, could not 
reach the citv, and the price of provisions in consequence rose enor- 
O 



210 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXX. 

mously. Such a state of things had become intolerable, and all 
eyes were now directed to Pompey. At the beginning of B.C. 67 
the Tribune A. Gabinius brought forward a bill which was intend- 
ed to give Pompey almost absolute authority over the greater part 
of the Roman world. It proposed that the people should elect a 
man with consular rank, who should possess unlimited power for 
three years over the whole of the Mediterranean, a fleet of 200 
ships, with as many soldiers and sailors as he thought necessary, 
and 6000 Attic talents. The bill did not name Pompey, but it was 
clear who was meant. The aristocracy were in the utmost alarm, 
and in the Senate Ccesar was almost the only person who came for- 
ward in its support. Party spirit ran to such a height that the 
most serious riots ensued. Even Pompey himself was threatened 
by the Consul, "If you emulate Romulus, you will not escape the 
end of Romulus." Q. Catulus and Q. Hortensius spoke against 
the bill with great eloquence, but with no effect. On the day that 
the bill was passed the price of provisions at Rome immediately 
fell, a fact which showed the immense confidence which all parties 
placed in the military abilities of Pompey. 

Pompey 's plans were formed with great skill, and were crowned 
with complete success. He stationed his lieutenants with different 
squadrons in various parts of tl^ Mediterranean to prevent the pi- 
rates from uniting, and to hunt them out of the various bays and 
creeks in which they concealed themselves ; while, at the same 
time, he swept the middle of the sea with the main body of his fleet, 
and chased them eastward. In forty days he drove the pirates out 
of the western seas, and restored communication between Spain, 
Africa, and Italy. After then remaining a short time in Italy, he 
sailed from Brundusium, cleared the seas as he went along, and 
forced the pirates to the Cilician coast. Here the decisive action 
was fought ; the pirates Avere defeated, and more than 20,000 pris- 
oners fell into his hands. Those on Avhom most reliance could be 
placed were distributed among the small and depopulated cities of 
Cilicia, and a large number were settled at Soli, which was hence- 
forward called Pompeiopolis. The second part of this campaign 
occupied only forty-nine days, and the whole war was brought to 
a conclusion in the course of three months. Pompey remained in 
Cilicia during the remainder of this year and the beginning of the 
one following. Meantime the Tribune C. Manilius brought for- 
ward a bill (B.C. 60) giving to Pompey the command of the war 
against Mithridates, with unlimited power over the army and the 
fleet in the East, and with the rights of a Proconsul in the whole of 
Asia as far as Armenia. As his Proconsular power already ex- 
tended over all the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean in vir- 



B.C. G6. POMPEY DEFEATS MITHRIDATES. 211 

tue of the Gabinian law, this new measure virtually placed almost 
the whole of the Roman dominions in his hands. But there was 
no power, however excessive, which the people were not ready to 
intrust to their favorite hero; and the bill was accordingly passed, 
notwithstanding the opposition of Hortensius, Catulus, and the ar- 
istocratical party, Cicero advocated the measure in an oration 
which has come down to us (Pro Lege Manilia), and Csesar like- 
wise supported it with his growing popularity and influence. 

On receiving intelligence of this new appointment, Pompey im- 
mediately crossed the Taurus, and took the command of the army 
from Lucullus. ■* 

The power of Mithridates had been broken by the previous vic- 
tories of Lucullus, and the successes which the king had gained 
lately were only of a temporary nature, mainly owing to the disor- 
ganization of the Roman army. In the plan of the campaign Pom- 
pey displayed great military skill. One of his first measures was 
to secure the alliance of the Parthian king, which not only deprived 
Mithridates of all hopes of succor from that quarter, but likewise 
cut him off from all assistance from the Armenian king Tigranes, 
who was now obliged to look to the safety of his own dominions. 
Pompey next stationed his fleet in different squadrons along the 
coasts of Asia Minor, in order to deprive Mithridates of all commu- 
nication from the sea, and he then proceeded in person at the head 
of his land-forces against the king. Thus thrown back upon his 
own resources, Mithridates sued for peace, but, as Pompey would 
hear of nothing but unqualified submission, the negotiation was 
broken off. The king was still at the head of 30,000 foot and 2000 
horse ; but he knew too well the strength of a Roman army to ven- 
ture an engagement with these forces, and accordingly withdrew 
gradually to the frontiers of Armenia. For a long time he suc- 
ceeded in avoiding a battle, but he was at length surprised by Pom- 
pey in Lesser Armenia, as he was marching through a narrow pass. 
The battle was soon decided ; the king lost the greater number of 
his troops, and escaped with only a few horsemen to the fortress of 
Synorium, on the borders of the Greater Armenia. Here he again 
collected a considerable force ; but as Tigranes refused to admit 
him into his dominions, because he suspected him of fomenting the 
intrigues of his son against him, Mithridates had no alternative but 
to take refuge in his own distant dominions in the Cimmerian Bos- 
porus. To reach them he had to march through Colchis, and to 
fight his way through the wild and barbarous tribes that occupied 
the country between the Caucasus and the Euxine. He succeed- 
ed, however, in this arduous enterprise, and reached the Bosporus 
in safety in the course of next year. Pompey abandoned at pres- 



212 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXX. 

ent all thoughts of following the fugitive king, and resolved at once 
to attack Tigranes, who was now the more formidable of the two 
monarchs. 

On entering Armenia Pompey met with no opposition. He was 
joined by the young Tigranes, who had revolted against his fa- 
ther, and all the cities submitted to them on their approach. When 
the Romans drew near to Artaxata, the king, deserted by his army 
and his court, went out to meet Pompey, and threw himself before 
him as a suppliant. Pompey received him with kindness, acknowl- 
edged him as King of Armenia, and demanded only the payment 
of 6000 talents. His foreign possessions, however, in Syria, Phce- 
nicia, Cilicia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, which had been conquered 
by Lucullus, were to belong to the Romans. To his son Tigranes, 
Sophene and Gordyene were given as an independent kingdom ; 
but as the young prince was discontented with this arrangement, 
and even ventured to utter threats, Pompey had him arrested, and 
kept him in chains to grace his triumph. 

After thus settling the afFtiirs of Armenia, Pompey proceeded 
northward in pursuit of Mithridates. But the season was so far 
advanced that he took up his winter quarters on the banks of the 
River Cyrus. Early in the spring (b.c. 65) he resumed his march 
northward, and advanced as far as the River Phasis, but, obtaining 
here more certain information of the movements of Mithridates, 
and of the wild and inaccessible nature of the country through 
which he would have to march in order to reach the king, he re- 
traced his steps, and led his troops into winter quarters at Amisus, 
on the Euxine. He now reduced Pontus to the form of a Roman 
province. 

In B.C. 64 Pompey marched into Syria, where he deposed An- 
tiochus Asiaticus, and made the country a Roman province. He 
likewise compelled the neighboring princes, who had established 
independent kingdoms on the ruins of the Syrian empire, to sub- 
mit to the Roman dominion. The whole of this year was occupied 
with the settlement of Syria and the adjacent countries. 

Next year (b.c. 63) Pompey advanced farther south, in order to 
establish the Roman supremacy in Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, and Pal- 
estine. The latter country was at this time distracted by a civil 
war between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. Pompey espoused the 
side of Hyrcanus, and Aristobulus surrendered himself to Pompey 
when the latter had advanced near to Jerusalem. But the Je\ys 
refused to follow the example of their king, and it was not till aft- 
er a siege of three months that the city was taken. Pompey en- 
tered the Holy of Holies, the first time that any human being, ex- 
cept the high-priest, had penetrated into this sacred spot. He re- 



B.C. 63. DEATH OF MITHEIDATES. 213 

instated Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood, but compelled him to 
pay an annual tribute to Rome ; Aristobulus accompanied him as 
a prisoner. It was during this war in Palestine that Pompey re- 
ceived intelligence of the death of Mithridates. 

During the last two years Mithridates had been making the 
most extensive preparations for a renewal of the contest. He had 
conceived the daring project of marching round the north and west 
coasts of the Euxine, and penetrating even into Italy. With these 
views, he was busily engaged in assembling such a tieet and army 
as would be sufficient for an enterprise of this magnitude ; but his 
proceedmgs were delayed by a long and painful illness, which in- 
capacitated him for any personal exertion. At length, however, 
his preparations were completed, and he found himself at the head 
of an army of 36,000 men and a considerable fleet. Bat during 
his illness disaffection had made rapid progress among his follow- 
ers. The full extent of his schemes was probably communicated 
to few ; but enough had transpired to alarm the multitude, and a 
formidable conspiracy was organized by Pharnaces, the favorite son 
of Mithridates. He was quickly joined both by the whole army 
and the citizens of PanticapjBum, who unanimously proclaimed 
him king, and Mithridates saw that no choice remained to him but 
death or captivity. Hereupon he took poison, which he constant- 
ly can-ied with him ; but his constitution had been so long inured 
to antidotes that it did not produce the desired effect, and he was 
compelled to call in the assistance of one of his Gaulish mercena- 
ries to dispatch him with his sword. 

Pompey now devoted his attention to the settlement of affairs in 
Asia. He confirmed Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, in the pos- 
session of the kingdom of Bosporus ; Deiotarus, tetrarch of Gala- 
tia, was rewarded with an extension of territory ; and Ariobarza- 
nes, king of Cajipadocia, was restored to his kingdom. After an 
absence of seven years, Pompey arrived in Italy toward the end of 
B.C. 62. His arrival had been long looked for by all parties with 
various feelings of hope and fear. It was felt that at the head of 
his victorious troops he could easily play the ])art of Sulla, and be- 
come the ruler of the state. Important events had taken place at 
Rome during the absence of Pompey, of which it is necessary to 
give an account before following him to the city. 




CHAPTER XXXI. 

INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE CONSULSHIP OP POMPEY AND CRAS- 
SUS TO THE RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST. THE CON- 
SPIRACY OF CATILINE. B.C. G9-61. 

Notwithstanding the restoration of the Tribunate and the al- 
teration in the judicial power in Pompey's Consulship, the popular 
party had received such a severe blow during Sulla's supremacy, 
that the aristocracy still retained the chief political influence dur- 
ing Pompey's absence in the East. But meantime a new leader 
of the popular party had been rapidly rising into notice, who was 
destined not only to crush the aristocracy, but to overthrow the Re- 
public and become the undisputed master of the Roman world. 

C. Julius C^sar, who was descended from an old Patrician 
family, was six years younger than Pompey, having been born in 
B.C. 100. He was closely connected with the popular party by the 
marriage of his aunt Julia with the great Marius, and he himself 
married, at an early age, Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, the most 



B.C. 100-G8. C. JULIUS C.^SAR. 215 

distinguished of the Marian leaders. Sulla commanded him to 
divorce his wife, and on his refusal he was included in the list of 
the proscription. The Vestal virgins and his friends with difficul- 
ty obtained his pardon from the Dictator, who observed, when they 
pleaded his youth and insignificance, "that that boy would some 
day or another be the ruin of the aristocracy, for that there were 
many Mariuses in him." 

This was the first proof which Csesar gave of the resolution and 
decision of character which distinguished him througliout life. He 
went to Asia in B.C. 81, where he served his first campaign under 
M. MinuciusThermus, and was ,3warded, at the siege of Mit^lene, 
with a civic crown for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. On his 
return to Rome he accused (b.c. 77) Cn. Dolabella of extortion in 
his province of Macedonia. Dolabella was acquitted by the sena- 
torial judges; but Cffisar gained great reputation by this prosecu- 
tion, and showed that he possessed powers of oratory which bade 
fair to place him among the foremost speakers at Rome. To ren- 
der himself still more perfect in oratory, he went to Rhodes, which 
was then celebrated for its school of rhetoric, but in his voyage 
thither he was captured by pirates, with whom the seas of the Med- 
iterranean then swarmed. In this island he was detained by them 
till he could obtain fifty talents from the neighboring cities for his 
ransom. Immediately on obtaining his liberty, he manned some 
Milesian vessels, overpowered the pirates, and conducted them as 
prisoners to Pergamus, where he shortly afterward crucified them 
— a punishment he had frequently threatened them with in sport 
when he was their prisoner. He then repaired to Rhodes, where 
he studied under Apollonius for a short time, but soon afterward 
crossed over into Asia, on the outbreak of the Mithridatic war in 
B.C. 74. Here, although he held no public office, he collected 
troops on his own authority, and repulsed the commander of the 
king, and then returned to Rome in the same year, in consequence 
of having been elected Pontifif daring his absence. His affable 
manners, and, still more, his unbounded liberality, won the hearts 
of the people. 

CxssLV obtained the Quastorship in B.C. 68. In this year he lost 
his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius, and his own wife Cornelia. 
He pronounced orations over both of them in the forum, in which 
he took the opportunity of passing a panegyric upon the former 
leaders of the popular party. At the funeral of his aunt he caused 
the images of Marius to be carried in the procession : they were 
welcomed with loud acclamations by the people, who were delighted 
to see their former favorite brought, as it were, into public again. 
Ca?sar warmly supported the Gabinian and Manilian Laws, 



216 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXI. 

which bestowed upon Pompey the command against the pirates 
and Mithridates. These measures, as we have aheady seen, were 
opposed by the aristocracy, and widened still farther the breach 
between them and Pompey. In n.c. 65 Ciesar was Curule ^dile 
along with M. Bibulus, and still farther increased his popularity 
by the splendid games which he exhibited. He now took a step 
which openly proclaimed him the leader of the Marian party. He 
caused the statues of Marius and the Cimbrian trophies, which had 
been all destroyed by Sulla, to be privately restored and placed at 
night in the Capitol. In the morning the city was in the highest 
state of excitement ; the veterans of Marius cried with joy at be- 
holding his countenance once more, and greeted Ceesar with shouts 
of applause. Q. Catulus brought the conduct of C»sar before the 
notice of the Senate, but the popular excitement was so great that 
they thought it better to let the matter drop. 

In Caesar's -^dileship the first Catilinarian conspiracy occurred, 
and from this time his history forms a portion of that of the times. 
But before passing on, the early life of another distinguished man, 
the greatest of Roman orators, also claims our notice. 

M. TuLLius Cicero was born at Arpinura in b.c. 106, and con- 
sequently in the same year as Pompey. His father was of the 
Equestrian order, and lived upon his hereditary estate near Arpi- 
num, but none of his ancestors had ever held any of the offices of 
state. Cicero was therefore, according to the Roman phraseology, 
a New Man (see p. 128). He sei*ved his first and only campaign in 
the Social War (b.c. 89), and in the troubled times which followed 
he gave himself up with indefatigable perseverance to those studies 
which were essential to his success as a lawyer and orator. When 
tranquillity was restored by the final discomfiture of the Marian 
party, he came forward as a pleader at the age of twenty-five. The 
first of his extant speeches in a civil suit is that for P. Quintius 
(b.c. 81); the first delivered upon a criminal trial was that in de- 
fense of Sex. Roscius of Ameria, who was charged with parricide 
by Chrysogonus, a freedman of Sulla, supported, as it was under- 
stood, by the influence of his patron. In consequence of the failure 
of his health, Cicero quitted Rome in b.c. 79, and spent two years 
in study in the philosophical and rhetorical schools of Athens and 
Asia Minor. On his return to the city he forthwith took his sta- 
tion in the foremost rank of judicial orators, and ere long stood 
alone in acknowledged pi-e-eminence ; his most formidable rivals 
— Hortensius, eight years his senior, and C. Aurelius Cotta, who 
had long been kings of the bar — having been forced, after a short 
but sharp contest for supremacy, to yield. 

Cicero's reputation and popularity already stood so high that he 



B.C. 70-G5. CICERO.— CATILINE. 217 

was elected Quaestor (b.c. 7G), although, comparatively speaking, a 
stranger, and certainly unsupported by any powerful faniily inter- 
est. He served in Sicily under Sex. Peducaus, Praetor of Lily- 
baium. In b.c. 70 he gained great renown by his impeachment of 
Verres for his oppression of the Sicilians, whom he had ruled as 
Praetor of Syracuse for the space of three years (b.c. 73-71). The 
most strenuous exertions were made by Verres, backed by some of 
the most powerful families, to wrest the case out of the hands of 
Cicero, who, however, defeated the attempt, and having demanded 
and been allowed 110 days for the purpose of collecting evidence, 
he instantly set out for Sicily, which he traversed in less than two 
months, and returned attended by all the necessary witnesses. An- 
other desperate effort was made by Hortensius, now Consul elect, 
who was counsel for the defendant, to raise up obstacles which 
might have the effect of delaying the trial until the commence- 
ment of the following year ; but here again he was defeated by the 
promptitude and decision of his opponent, who opened the case 
very briefly, proceeded at once to the examination of the witnesses 
and the production of the depositions and other papers, which, 
taken together, constituted a mass of testimony so decisive that 
Verres gave up the contest as hopeless, and retired at once into 
exile without attempting any defense. The full pleadings, how- 
ever, which wei'e to have been delivered had the trial been .per- 
mitted to run its ordinary course, were subsequently published by 
Cicero. 

In B.C. C9 Cicero was ^dile, and in 66 Praetor. In the latter 
year he delivered his celebrated address to the people in favor of 
the Manilian Law. Having now the Consulship in view, and 
knowing that, as a new man, he must expect the most determined 
opposition from the Nobles, he resolved to throw himself into the 
arms of the popular party, and to secure the friendship of Pompe}'', 
now certainly the most important person in the Republic. 

In the following year (b.c. 65) the first conspiracy of Catiline 
occurred. The circumstances of the times were favorable to a 
bold and unprincipled adventurer. A widespread feeling of dis- 
affection extended over the whole of Italy. The veterans of Sulla 
had already squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and longed for a 
renewal of those scenes of blood which they had found so profit- 
able. The multitudes whose estates had been confiscated and 
whose relations had been proscribed were eagerly watching for 
any movement which might give them a chance of becoming rob- 
bers and murderers in their turn. The younger nobility, as a class, 
were thoroughly demoralized, for the most part bankrupts in for- 
tune as well as in fame, and eager for any change which might 



218 HISTORY OF HOME. Chap. XXXI. 

relieve them fx'om their embarrassments. The rabble were restless 
and discontented, filled with envy and hatred against the rich and 
powerful. Never was the executive weaker. The Senate and 
Magistrates were wasting their energies in petty disputes, indiffer- 
ent to the interests of the Republic. Pompey, at the head of all 
the best troops of the Republic, was prosecuting a long-protracted 
war in the East ; there was no army in Italy, where all was hushed 
in a treacherous calm. 

Of the profligate nobles at this time none was more profligate 
than L. Sergius Catilina. He was the descendant of an ancient 
patrician family which had sunk into poverty, and he first appears 
in history as a zealous partisan of Sulla. During the horrors of 
the proscription he killed his brother-in-law, Q. Ca^cilius, and is 
said to have murdered even his own brother. His youth was spent 
in the open indulgence of every vice, and it was believed that he 
had made away with his first wife, and afterward Avith his son, in 
order that he might marry the profligate Aurelia Orestilla, who 
objected to the presence of a grown-up step-child. Notwithstand- 
ing tliese crimes, he acquired great popularity among the younger 
nobles by his agreeable address and his zeal in ministering to their 
pleasures. He possessed extraordinary powers of mind and body, 
and all who came in contact with him submitted more or less to 
the ascendency of his genius. He was Praetor in b.c. G8 ; was 
Governor of Africa during the following year ; and returned to 
Rome in b.c. 66, in order to press his suit for the Consulship. The 
election for b.c. 65 was carried by P. Autronius Pietus and P. Cor- 
nelius Sulla, both of whom were soon after convicted of bribery, 
and their places supplied by their competitors and accusers, L. Au- 
relius Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus. Catiline, who was desir- 
ous of becoming a candidate, had been disqualified in consequence 
of an impeachment for oppression in his province preferred by P. 
Clodius Pulcher. Exasperated by their disappointment, Autroni- 
us and Catiline formed a project, along with Cn. Calpurnius Piso, 
another profligate young nobleman, to murder the new Consuls 
upon the first of January, when offering up their vows in the Cap- 
itol, after which Autronius and Catiline were to seize the fasces, 
and Piso was to be dispatched with an army to occupy the Spains. 
This extraordinary design is said to have been frustrated solely by 
the impatience of Catiline, who gave the signal prematurely before 
the whole of the armed agents had assembled. 

Encouraged rather than disheartened by a failure which had so 
nearly proved a triumph, Catiline was soon after left completely 
unfettered by his acquittal upon trial for extortion, a result secured 
bv the liberal bribes administered to the accuser as well as to the 



B.C.G4. CATILINE'S CONSriKACY. 219 

jury. From this time he proceeded more systematically, and en- 
listed a more numerous body of supporters. In the course of u.c. 
G4 he had enrolled several Senators in his ranks, among others P. 
Cornelius Lentulus Sura, who had been Consul in B.C. 71, and C. 
Cornelius Cethegus, distinguished throughout by his impetuosity 
and sanguinary violence. He proposed that all debts should be 
canceled, that the most wealthy citizens should be proscribed, and 
that all offices of honor and emolument should be divided among 
his associates. He confidently anticipated that he should be elect- 
ed Consul for the next year along with C. Antonius, having formed 
a coalition with him for the purpose of excluding Cicero. The 
orator, however, was supported, not only by the Equites and Pom- 
pey's friends, but even by the Senate, who, though disliking a New 
Man, were compelled to give him their support in order to exclude 
Catiline. The consequence was that Cicero and Antonius were 
returned, the former nearly unanimously, the latter by a small ma- 
jority over Catiline. As soon as Cicero entered upon his Consul- 
ship he renounced his connection with the poi)ular party, and be- 
came a stanch supporter of the aristocracy. He successfully op- 
posed an agrarian law proposed by the Tribune RuUus, and de- 
fended C. Rabirius, who was now accused by the Tribune Labienus 
of having been concerned in the death of Saturninus nearly forty 
years before. Cajsar took an active part in both these proceedings. 
But the attention of Cicero was mainly directed to Catiline's con- 
spiracy. He gained over his colleague Antonius by resigning to 
him the province of Macedonia. Meantime he became acquaint- 
ed with every detail of the plot through Fulvia, the mistress of Q. 
Curius, one of Catiline's intimate associates. Thus informed, Cic- 
ero called a meeting of the Senate on the 21st of October, when 
he openly denounced Catiline, charged him broadly with treason, 
and asserted that the 28th was the period fixed for the murder of 
the leading men in the Republic. The Senate thereupon invested 
the Consuls with dictatorial power. The Comitia for the election 
of the Consuls was now held. Catiline, agam a candidate, was 
again rejected. Driven to despair by this fresh disappointment, 
he resolved at once to bring matters to a crisis. On the night of 
the 6th of November he summoned a meeting of the ringleaders at 
the house of M. Porcius Lteca, and made arrangements for an im- 
mediate outbreak. Cicero, being immediately informed of what 
took place, summoned, on the 8th of November, a meeting of the 
Senate in the Temple of Jupiter Stator, and there delivered the 
first of his celebrated orations against Catiline. Catiline, who upon 
his entrance had been avoided by all, and was sitting alone upon 
a bench from which every one had shrunk, rose to reply, but had 



220 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXI. 

scarcely commenced when his words were drowned by the shouts 
of "enemy" and "parricide" which burst from the whole assembly, 
and he rushed forth with threats and curses on his lips. He now 
resolved to strike some decisive blow before troops could be levied 
to oppose him, and accordingly, leaving the chief control of affairs 
at Rome in the hands of Lentulus and Cethegus, he set forth in 
the dead of night, and proceeded to join Manlius at Ftesulas. 

On the 9th, when the flight of Catiline was known, Cicero de- 
livered his second speech, which was addressed to the peo})le in 
the forum. The Senate proceeded to declare Catiline and Manlius 
public enemies, and decreed that Antonius should go forth to the 
war, while Cicero should remain to guard the city. Cicero was 
now anxious to obtain other evidence, besides that of Fulvia, which 
would warrant him in apprehending the conspirators within the 
walls. This was fortunately supplied by the embassadors Of the 
Allobroges, who were now at Rome, having been sent to seek relief 
from certain real or alleged grievances. Their suit, however, had 
not prospered, and Lentulus, conceiving that their discontent might 
be made available for his own purposes, opened a negotiation with 
them and disclosed to them the nature of the plot. But they 
thought it more prudent to reveal all to Q. Fabius Sanga, the pa- 
tron of their state, who in his turn acquainted Cicero. By the in- 
structions of the latter the embassadors affected great zeal in the 
undertaking, and obtained a written agreement signed by Lentu- 
lus, Cethegus, and others. They quitted Rome soon after mid- 
night on the 3d of December, accompanied by one T, Volturcius, 
who was charged witlv dispatches for Catiline. The embassadors 
were seized, as they were crossing the Mulvian bridge, by two of 
the Prcetors, who had been stationed in ambush to intercept them. 

Cicero instantly summoned Lentulus, Cethegus, and the other 
conspirators to his presence. Lentulus being Prcetor, the Consul 
led him by the hand to the Temple of Concord, where the Senate 
was already met ; the rest of the accused followed closely guarded. 
Volturcius, finding escape impossible, agreed, upon his own per- 
sonal safety being insured, to make a full confession. His state- 
ments were confirmed by the Allobroges, and the testimony was 
rendered conclusiA^e by the signatures of tlie ringleaders, Mhich 
they were unable to deny. The guilt of Lentulus, Cethegus, and 
seven others being thus established, Lentulus was forced to abdi- 
cate his ofiice, and then, with the rest, was consigned to the charge 
of certain Senators, who became responsible for their appearance. 

These circumstances, as they had occurred, were then narrated 
by Cicero in his Third Oration, delivered in the forum. On the 
nones (5th) of December the Senate was again summoned to de- 



B.C. 62. DEATH OF CATILINE. 221 

termine upon the fate of the conspirators. Cffisar, in an elaborate 
speech, proposed that they should be kept in confinement in the 
different towns of Italy, but Cato and Cicero strongly advocated 
that they should be instantly put to death. Their 'views were 
adopted by a majority of the Senate, and a decree passed to that 
effect. On the same night Lentulus and his associates were stran- 
gled by the common executioner in the Tullianum, a loathsome 
dungeon on the slope of the Capitol. 

While these things were going on at Eome, Catiline had collect- 
ed a force amounting to two legions, although not above one fourth 
part were fully equipped. When the news of the failure of the 
plot at Eome reached his camp many deserted. He thereupon at- 
tempted to cross the Apennines and take refuge in Cisalpine Gaul, 
but the passes were strictly guarded by Metellus Celer with three 
legions. Finding, therefore, that escape was cut off in front, while 
Antonius was pressing on his rear, Catiline determined, as a last 
resource, to hazard an engagement. Antonius, in consequence of 
real or pretended illness, resigned the command to M. Petreius, a 
skillful soldier. The battle was obstinate and bloody. The rebels 
fought with the fury of despair ; and when Catiline saw that all 
was lost, he charged headlong into the thickest of the fight and fell 
sword in hand (b.c. 62). 

Cicero had rendered important services to the state, and enjoved 
for a time unbounded popularity. Catulus in the Senate and Cato 
in the forum hailed him as the " Father of his Country ;" thanks- 
givings in his name were voted to the gods; and alfltaly joined 
in testifying enthusiastic admiration and gratitude. Cicero's ela- 
tion knew no bounds ; he fancied that his political influence was 
now supreme, and looked upon himself as a match even for Pom- 
pey. But his splendid achievement contained the germ of his hu- 
miliation and downfall. There could be no doubt that the punish- 
ment inflicted by the Senate upon Lentulus and his associates was 
a violation of the fundamental principles of the Roman Constitu- 
tion, which declared that no citizen could be put to death until sen- 
tenced by the whole body of the people assembled in their Comi- 
tia, and for this act Cicero, as the presiding magistrate, was held 
responsible. It was in vain to urge that the Consuls had been 
armed with dictatorial power ; the Senate, in the present instance, 
assuming to themselves judicial functions which they had no right 
to exercise, gave orders for the execution of a sentence which they 
had no right to pronounce. Nor were his enemies long in discov- 
ering this vulnerable point. On the last day of the year, when, 
according to established custom, he ascended the Rostra to give an 
account to the people of the events of his Consulship, Metellus Ce- 



222 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



Chap. XXXI. 



ler, one of the new Tribunes, forbade him to speak, exclaiming that 
the man who had put Roman citizens to death without granting 
them a hearing was himself unworthy to be heard. But this at- 
tack was premature. The audience had not yet forgotten their 
recent escape ; so that, when Cicero swore with a loud voice that 
"he had saved the Republic and the city from ruin," the crowd 
with one voice responded that he had sworn truly. 

It was rumored that many other eminent men had been privy to 
Catiline's conspiracy. Among others, the names of Crassus and 
Csesar were most frequently mentioned ; but the participation of 
either of these men in such an enterprise seems most improbable. 
The interests of Crassus were opposed to such an adventure ; his 
vast wealth was employed in a variety of speculations which would 
have been ruined in a general overthrow, while he had not the en- 
ergy or ability to seize and retain the helm in the confusion that 
would have ensued. Of Ceesar's guilt there is no satisfactory evi- 
dence, and it is improbable that so keen-sighted a man would have 
leagued with such a desperate adventurer as Catiline. Cato, in 
his speech respecting the fate of the conspirators, hinted that CiB- 
sar wished to spare them because he was a partner of their guilt ; 
and in the following year (b.c. 62), when Caasar was Praetor, L. Vet- 
tius, who had been one of Cicero's informers, openly charged him 
with being a party to the plot. Thereupon Csesar called upon Cic- 
ero to testify that he had of his own accord given the Consul evi- 
dence respecting the conspii-acy; and so complete was his vindica- 
tion that Vettius was thrown into prison. 





Juliud (.assar. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 



FROM POMPEY S RETURN PROM THE EAST TO CICERO S BANISH- 
MENT AND RECALL. B.C. 62-57. 

PoMPEY, as we have already seen, reached Italy in B.C. 62. It 
was generally feared that he would seize the supreme power, but 
he soon calmed these apprehensions by disbanding his army im- 
mediately after landing atBrundnsium. He did not, however, en- 
ter Rome in triumph till the 30th of September, b.c. 61. The tri- 
umph lasted two days, and surpassed in splendor every spectacle 
that Rome had yet seen. The tablets carried in the procession, on 
which his victories Avere emblazoned, declared that he had taken 
1000 strong fortresses, 900 towns, and 800 ships ; that he had 
founded 39 cities; that he had raised the revenue of the Roman 
people from 59 millions to 85 millions; and that he had brought 
into the public treasury 20,000 talents. Before his triumphal car 
walked 324 captive princes. 

With this triumph the first and most glorious part of Pompey's 
life may be said to have ended. Hitherto he had been employed 
almost exclusively in war ; but now he was called upon to play a 
prominent part in the civil commotions of the Republic — a part for 
which neither his natural talents nor his previous habits had in the 



224 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXII. 

least fitted him. From the death of Sulla to the present time, a 
period of nearly twenty years, he had been unquestionably the first 
man in the Roman world, but he did not retain much longer this 
proud position, and soon discovered that the genius of Ccesar had 
reduced him to a second place in the state. It would seem as if 
Pompey, on his return to Rome, hardly knew to which party to 
attach himself. He had been appointed to the command against 
the pirates and Mithridates in opposition to the aristocracy, and 
they still regai'dcd him with jealousy and distrust. He could not, 
therefore, ally himself to them, especially too as some of their most 
influential leaders, such as M. Crassus and L, Lucullus, were his 
personal enemies. At the same time he seems to have been in- 
disposed to unite himself to the popular party, which had risen 
into importance during his absence in the East, and over which 
Cffisar ])ossessed unbounded influence. But the object which en- 
gaged the immediate attention of Pompey was to obtain from the 
Senate a ratification of his acts in Asia, and an assignment of 
lands which he had promised to his veterans. In order to secure 
this object, he had purchased the Consulship for one of his officers, 
L. Afranius, who was elected with Q. Metelliis for B.C. 60. But L. 
Afranius was a man of slender ability ; and the Senate, glad of an 
opportunity to put an affront upon a person whom they both feared 
and hated, resolutely refused to sanction Pompey's measures in 
Asia. This was the unwisest thing they could have done. If they 
had known their real interests, they would have yielded to all Pom- 
pey's wishes, and have sought by every means to win him over to 
their side, as a counterpoise to the growing and more dangerous 
influence of Cajsar. But their short-sighted policy threw Pompey 
into Ciesar's arms, and thus sealed the downfall of their party. 
Pompey was resolved to fulfill the promises he had made to his 
Asiatic clients and his veteran troops. 

Cassar had returned from Spain in the middle of this year. He 
had been in that province for one year as Propraetor, during which 
time he displayed that military ability which was soon to be ex- 
hibited on a still more conspicuous field. He subdued the mount- 
ainous tribes of Lusitania, took the town of Brigantium in the 
country of the Gallaeci, and gained many other advantages over 
the enemy. His troops saluted him as Imperator, and the Senate 
honored him by a public thanksgiving. He now laid claim to a 
triumph, and at the same time wished to become a candidate for 
the Consulship. For the latter purpose his presence in the city 
was necessary; but, as he could not enter the city without relin- 
quishing his triumph, he applied to the Senate to be exempted from 
the usual law, and to become a candidate in his absence. As this 



B.C. 60. C^SAR ELECTED CONSUL; 226 

was refused, he at once relinquished his triumph, entered the city, 
and became a candidate for the Consulship. He was elected with- 
out difficulty, but the aristocracy succeeded in associating with him 
in the Consulship M. Bibulus, who belonged to the opposite party, 
and who had likewise been his colleague in the ^dileship and 
Prajtorship. 

Ca;sar now represented to Pompey the importance of detaching 
from the aristocracy M. Crassus, who, by his connections and im- 
mense wealth, possessed great political influence. Pompey and 
Crassus had fur a long time past been deadly enemies, but they 
were now reconciled, and the three entered into an agreement to 
divide the power between themselves. This first Triumvirate, as 
it is called, was therefore merely a private arrangement between 
the three most powerful men at Rome, which remained a secret till 
the proceedings of Cagsar in his Consulship showed that he was 
supported by a power against which it was in vain for his enemies 
to struggle. 

As soon as Cassar had entered upon his Consulship he proposed 
an agrarian law for the division of the rich Campanian land. The 
execution of the law was to be intrusted to a board of twenty com- 
missioners. The opposition of the aristocratical party was in vain. 
Pompey and Crassus spoke in favor of the law ; and the former 
declared that he would bring both sword and buckler against those 
who used the sword. On the day on which it was put to the vote, 
Bibulus and the other members of the aristocracy were driven out 
of the forum by force of arms : the law was carried, the commis- 
sioners appointed, and about 20,000 citizens, comprising, of course, 
a great number of Pompey's veterans, received allotments subse- 
quently. Bibulus, despairing of being able to offer any farther re- 
sistance to Csesar, shut himself up in his own house, and did not 
appear again in public till the expiration of his Consulship. 

Caesar obtained from the people a ratification of all Pompey's 
acts in Asia, and, to cement«their union more closely, gave his 
only daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey. His next step was to 
gain over the Equites, who had rendered efficient service to Cicero 
in his Consulship, and had hitherto supported the aristocratical 
party. An excellent opportunity now occurred for accomplishing 
this object. In their eagerness to obtain the farming of the public 
taxes in Asia, the Equites had agreed to pay too large a sum, and 
accordingly petitioned the Senate for more favorable terms. This, 
however, had been opposed by Metellus Celer, Cato, and others of 
the aristocracy ; and Ci:esar, therefore, now carried a law to re- 
lieve the Equites from one third of the sum which they had agreed 
to pav. Having thus gratified the peojile, the Equites, and Pom- 
P 



226 . HISTOKY OF ROME. Chap. XXXII. 

pey, he was easily able to obtain for himself the provinces which 
he wished. 

It is not attributing any extraordinary foresight to Csesar to sup- 
pose that he already saw that the struggle between the different 
parties at Rome must eventually be terminated by the sword. The 
same causes were still in operation which had led to the civil wars 
between Marius and Sulla ; and he was well aware that the aris- 
tocracy would not hesitate to call in the assistance of force if they 
should ever succeed in detaching Pompey from his interests. It 
was therefore of the first importance for him to obtain an army 
which he might attach to himself by victories and rewards. Ac- 
cordingly, he induced the Tribune Vatinius to propose a bill to the 
people granting him the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum 
for five years (b.c. 58-54). Transalpine Gaul was shortly after- 
ward added. Caesar chose the Gallic provinces, as he would thus 
be able to pass the winter in Italy and keep up his communication 
with the city, while the disturbed state of Farther Gaul promised 
him sufficient materials for engaging in a series of wars in which 
he might employ an army that would afterward be devoted to his 
purposes. In addition to these considerations, Csesar was also ac- 
tuated by the ambition of subduing forever that nation which had 
once sacked Rome, and which had been, from the earliest times, 
more or less an object of dread to the Roman state. 

The Consuls of the following year (b.c. 58) were L. Calpurnius 
Piso and A. Gabinius. Piso was Caesar's father-in-law, and Ga- 
binius in his Tribunate had proposed the law conferring upon Pom- 
pey the command against the pirates. Cassar saw that it was evi- 
dent they would support whatever the Triumvirs might wish. Cic- 
ero was now threatened with destruction. 

In B.C. 62, while the wife of Caesar was celebrating in the house 
of her husband, then Praetor and Pontifex Maximus, the rites of 
the Bona Dea, from which all male creatures were excluded, it was 
discovered that P. Clodius Pulche% a profligate noble, whom we 
have seen inciting the army of Lucullus to insurrection, had found 
his way into the mansion disguised in woman's apparel, and, hav- 
ing been detected, had made his escape by the help of a female 
slave. The matter was laid before the Senate, and by them re- 
ferred to the members of the Pontifical College, who passed a reso- 
lution that sacrilege had been committed. Caesar forthwith di- 
vorced his wife. Clodius was impeached and brought to trial. In 
defense he pleaded an alibi, offering to prove that he Avas at Inter- 
amna at the very time when the crime was said to have been com- 
mitted ; but Cicero came forward as a witness, and swore that he 
had met and spoken to Clodius in Rome on the day in question. 



B.C. 58. BANISHMENT OF CICERO. 227 

In spite of this decisive testimony, and the evident guilt of the 
accused, the Judices pronounced him innocent by a majority of 
voices (B.C. 01). Clodius now vowed deadly vengeance against 
Cicero. To accomplish his purpose more readily, he determined 
to become a candidate for the Tribunate, but for this it was neces- 
sary, in the hrst place, that he should be adopted into a plebeian 
family by means of a special law. This, after protracted opposi- 
tion, was at length accomplished through the interference of the 
Triumvirs, and he was elected Tribune for B.C. 58- 

One of the first acts of Clodius, after entering upon office, was 
to propose a bill interdicting from fire and water any one who 
should be found to have put a Roman citizen to death untried. 
Cicero changed his attire, and, assuming the garb of one accused, 
went round the Forum soliciting the compassion of all whom he 
met. For a brief period public sympathy was awakened. A large 
number of the Senate and the Equites appeared also in mourning, 
and the better portion of the citizens seemed resolved to espouse 
his cause. But all demonstrations of such feelings were promptly 
repressed by Piso and Gabinius. Csesar had previously made over- 
tures to Cicero, which the orator, overrating his influence and re- 
lying upon the support of Pompey, had rejected. The Triumvirs 
now left him to his fate, and Cicero, giving way to despair, quitted 
Rome at the beginning of April (b.c. 58), and reached Brundusium 
about the middle of the month. From thence he crossed over to 
Greece. The instant that the departure of Cicero became known, 
a law was passed pronouncing his banishment, forbidding any one 
to entertain or harbor him, and denouncing as a public enemy who- 
soever should take any steps toward procuring his recall. His 
mansion on the Palatine, and his villas at Tusculum and Formiae, 
were at the same time given over to plunder and destruction. 
Clodius, having thus gratified his hatred, did not care to consult 
any longer the views of the Triumvirs. He restored Tigranes to 
liberty, whom Pompey had kej^ in confinement, ridiculed the great 
Imperator before the people, and was accused of making an attempt 
upon his life. Pompey, in rcA^enge, resolved to procure the recall 
of Cicero from banishment, and was thus brought again into some 
friendly connections with the aristocratical party. The new Con- 
suls (B.C. 57) were favorable to Cicero; but, though Clodius was 
no longer in office, he had several partisans among the Tribunes 
who otfered the most vehement opposition to the restoration of his 
great enemy. One of the chief supporters of Cicero was the Trib- 
une T. Annius Milo, a man as unprincipled and violent as Clodius 
himself. He opposed force to force, and at the head of a band of 
gladiators attacked the hired ruffians of Clodius. The streets of 



228 



HISTORY OF ROxME. 



Chap. XXXII. 



Rome were the scenes of almost daily conflicts between the lead- 
ers of these assassins. At length tlie Senate, with the full appro- 
bation of Pompey, determined to invite the voters from the ditFer- 
ent parts of Italy to repair to Rome and assist in carrying a law 
for the recall of Cicero. Accordingly, on the 4th of August, the 
bill was passed by an overwhelming majority. On the same day 
Cicero quitted Dyrrhachium, and crossed over to Brundusium. 
He received deputations and congratulatory addresses from all the 
towns on the line of the Appian Way ; and having arrived at Rome 
on the 4th of September, a vast multitude poured forth to meet 
him, while the crowd rent the air with acclamations as he passed 
through the Forum and ascended the Capitol to render thanks to 
Jupiter (B.C. 57). 




=illi!!liilr-' piill 



liji 



Trfl»F 



'nm^^^^^A 



rmr 



Temi)le of Hercules at Kome. 




iSjW- 



Temple of Xemausud (Xhncs), now culled the liaison Carrie. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 
Cesar's campaigns ix gaul. b.c. 58-50. 

C^SAK set out for his province immediately after Cicero had 
gone into exile (b.c. 58). During the next nine years he was oc- 
cupied with the subjugation of Gaul. In this time he conquered 
the Avhole of Transalpine Gaul, which had hitherto been independ- 
ent of the Romans, with the exception of the part called Provincia. 
Twice he crossed the Rhine, and carried the terror of the Roman 
arms beyond that river. Twice he landed in Britain, which had 
been hitherto unknown to the Romans. We can only oflfer a very 
brief sketch of the principal events of each year. 

First Campaign, B.C. 58. — Caesar left Rome toward the latter end 
of April, and arrived in Geneva in eight days. His first campaign 
Avas against the Helvetii, a Gallic people situated to the north of 
the Lake of Geneva, and between the Rhine and Mount Jura. 
This people, quitting their liomes, had passed through the country 
of the Sequani, and were plundering the territories of the ^dui. 
Three out of their four clans had already crossed the Aiar (Saone) ; 
l)ut the fourth, which was still on the other side of the river, Avas 
surprised by CaBsar and cut to pieces. He then threw a bridge 
across the Arar, followed them cautiously for some davs, and at 
length fought a pitched battle with them near the town of Bibracte 
(Autun). The Helvetii were defeated with great slaughter, and 
the remnant compelled to return to their former homes. 

This great victory raised Casar's fame among the various tribes 
of Gauls, and the ^dui solicited his assistance against Ariovistus, 



230 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXIII. 

a German king who had invaded Gaul, and was constantly bring- 
ing over the Rhine fresh swarms of Germans. Caesar command- 
ed Ariovistus to abstain fi'om introducing any more Germans into 
Gaul, to restore the hostages to the ^dui, and not to attack the 
latter or their allies. A haughty answer was returned to these 
commands, and both parties prepared for war. Csesar advanced 
nortliward through the country of the Sequani, took possession of 
Vesontio (Besa7igon), an important toAvn on the Dubis (JJoubs), and 
some days afterward fought a decisive battle with Ariovistus, who 
suffered a total defeat, and fled with the remains of his army to the 
Rhine, a distance of fifty miles. Only a very few, and, among the 
rest, Ariovistus himself, crossed the river ; the rest were cut to 
pieces by the Roman cavalry. 

Second Campaign, B.C. 57. — The folloAving year was occupied 
with the Belgic war. Alarmed at Caisar's success, the various 
Belgic tribes which dwelt between the Sequana {Seine) and the 
Rhine, and were the most warlike of all the Gauls, had entered into 
a confederacy to oppose him, and had raised an army of 300,000 
men. Caesar opened the campaign by marching into the country 
of the Remi, who submitted at his approach. He then crossed the 
Axona {Aisne), and pitched his camp in a strong position on the 
right bank. The enemy soon began to suffer from want of pro- 
visions, and they came to the resolution of breaking up their vast 
army, and retiring to their own territories. Hitherto Caesar had 
remained in his intrenchments, but he now broke up from his quar- 
ters and resumed the offensive. The Suessiones, the Bellovaci, 
and Ambiani were subdued in succession, or surrendered of their 
own accord ; but a more formidable task awaited him when he 
came to the Nervii, the most warlike of all the Belgic tribes. In 
their country, near the River Sabis (Sambre), the Roman army 
was surprised by the enemy while engaged in fortifying the camp. 
The attack of the Nervii was so unexpected, that before the Ro- 
mans could form in rank the enemy was in their midst : the Ro- 
man soldiers began to give way, and the battle seemed entirely lost. 
Csesar freely exposed his own person in the first line of the battle, 
and discharged alike the duties of a brave soldier and an able gen- 
eral. His exertions and the discipline of the Roman troops at 
length triumphed, and the Nervii were defeated with such immense 
slaughter, that out of 60,000 fighting men only 500 remained in 
the state. When the Senate received the dispatches of Ca;sar an- 
nouncing this victory, they decreed a public thanksgiving of fifteen 
days — a distinction which had never yet been granted to any one. 

l^hird Campaign, B.C. 56. — In the third campaign Caesar com- 
pleted the subjugation of Gaul. He conducted in person a naval 



B.C. 56-55. CESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. 231 

war against the Veneti, the inhabitants of the modern Brittany, 
and, by means of his lieutenants, conquered the remaining tribes 
who still held out. In the later part of the summer C^sar marched 
against the Morini and Menapii (in the neighborhood of Calais 
and Boulogne). Thus all Gaul had been apparently reduced to 
subjection in three years ; but the spirit of the people was yet un- 
broken, and they only waited for an opportunity to rise against their 
conquerors. 

Fourth Campaign, B.C. 55. — In the following year Ccesar determ- 
ined to attack the Germans. The Gauls had suffered too much in 
the last three campaigns to make any farther attempt against the 
Romans at present ; but Caesar's ambition would not allow him to 
be idle. Fresh wars must be undertaken to employ his troops in 
active sei'vice. Two German tribes, the Usipetes and the Tench- 
theri, had been driven out of their own country by the Suevi, and 
had crossed the Rhine with the intention of settling in Gaul. 
This, however, Caisar was resolved to prevent, and accordingly pre- 
pai'ed to attack them. The Germans opened negotiations with 
him, but, while these wei-e going on, a body of their cavalry de- 
feated Caisar's Gallic horse. On the next day all the German 
chiefs came into Caesar's camp to apologize for what they had 
done ; but Cffisar detained them, and straightway led his troops to 
attack the enemy. Deprived of their leaders and taken by sur- 
prise, the Germans, after a feeble resistance, took to flight, and 
were almost all destroyed by the Roman cavahy. After this vic- 
tory Caisar resolved to cross the Rhine, in order to strike terror 
into the Germans. In ten days he built a bridge of boats across the 
river, probably in the neighborhood of Cologne ; and after spend- 
ing eighteen days on the eastern side of the Rhine, and ravaging 
the country of the Sigambri, he returned to Gaul and broke down 
the bridge. 

Although the greater part of the summer was now gone, Caesar 
resolved to invade Britain. His object in undertaking this expe- 
dition at such a late period of the year was more to obtain some 
knowledge of the island fi'om personal observation than with any 
view to permanent conquest at present. He accordingly took with 
him only two legions, with which he sailed from the port Itius 
(probably Witsand, between Calais and Boulogne), and effected a 
landing somewhere near the South Foreland, after a severe strug- 
gle with the natives. Several of the British tribes hereupon sent 
offers of submission to Cajsar ; but, in consequence of the loss of a 
great part of the Roman fleet a few days afterward, they took up 
arms again. Being, however, defeated, they again sent offers of 
submission to Crcsar, who simply domnndod double the number of 



232 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXIII. 

hostages he had originally required, as he was anxious to return to 
Gaul before the autumnal equinox. 

The news of these victories over the Germans and far-distant 
Britons was received at Rome with the greatest enthusiasm. The 
Senate voted a public thanksgiving of twenty days, notwithstand- 
ing the opposition of Cato, who declared that Cassar ought to be de- 
livered up to the Usipetes and Tenchtheri, to atone for his treach- 
ery in seizing the sacred persons of embassadors. 

Fifth Campaign, B.C. 54. — The greater part of Caesar's fifth cam- 
paign was occupied with his second invasion of Britain. He sailed 
from the port Itius with an army of five legions, and landed, with- 
out opposition, at the same place as in the former year. The Brit- 
ish states had intrusted the supreme command to Cassivellaunus, 
a chief whose territories were divided from the maritime states by 
the River Tamesis (Thames). The Britons bravely opposed the 
progress of the invaders, but were defeated in a series of engage- 
ments. Cfflsar crossed the Thames above London, probably in the 
neighborhood of Kingston, took the town of Cassivellaunus, and 
conquered great part of the counties of Essex and Middlesex. In 
consequence of these disasters, Cassivellaunus sued for peace; and 
after demanding hostages, and settling the tribute which Britain 
should pay yearly to the Roman people, Caesar returned to Gaul 
toward the latter pai't of the summer. He gained no more by his 
second invasion of Britain than by his first. He had penetrated, 
it is true, farther into the country, but had left no garrisons or mil- 
itary establishments behind him, and the people obeyed the Ro- 
mans as little afterward as they had done before. 

In consequence of the great scarcity of corn in Gaul, Caesar was 
obliged to divide his forces, and station his legions for the winter 
in different parts. This seemed to the Gauls a favorable opportu- 
nity for recovering their lost independence and destroying their 
conquerors. The Eburones, a Gallic people between the Meuse 
and the Rhine, near the modern Tongres, desti'oyed the detach- 
ment under the command of T. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurnncu- 
leius Cotta. They next attacked the camp of Q. Cicero, the broth- 
er of the orator, who was stationed among the Nervii. Cicero re- 
pulsed the enemy in all their attempts, till he was at length re- 
lieved by Caesar iii person, who came to his assistance with two 
legions as soon as he heard of the dangerous position of his legate. 
The forces of the enemy, which amounted to 60,000, were defeated 
by Caesar, who then joined Cicero, and praised him and his men for 
the bravery they had shown. 

Sixth Campaign, B.C. 53. — In the next year the Gauls again took 
up arms, and entered into a most formidable conspiracy to recover 



B.C. 53. CiESAKS CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. 233 

their independence. The destruction of the Roman troops under 
Sabinus and Cotta, and the unsettled state of Gaul during the win- 
ter, had led Casar to apprehend a general rising of the natives ; 
and he had accordingly levied two new legions in Cisalpine Gaul, 
and obtained one from Pompey, who was remaining in the neigh- 
borhood of Rome as Proconsul with the imperium. Being thus at 
the head of a powerful army, he was able to subdue the tribes that 
revolted, and soon compelled the Nervii, Senones, Carnutes, Mena- 
pii, and Treviri to return to obedience. But as the Treviri had 
been supported by the Germans, he crossed the Rhine again a little 
above the spot where he had passed over two years before, and, 
after receiving the submission of the Ubii, ravaged the country of 
the Suevi. On his return to Gaul he laid waste the country of the 
Eburones with fire and sword. At the conclusion of the campaign 
he prosecuted a strict inquiry into the revolt of the Senones and 
Carnutes, and caused Acco, who had been the chief ringleader in 
the conspiracy, to be put to death. 

Seventh Campaign, B.C. 52. — The unsuccessful issue of last year's 
revolt had not yet damped the spirits of the Gauls. The execu- 
tion of Acco had frightened all the chiefs, as every one feared that 
his turn might come next ; the hatred of the Roman yoke was in- 
tense ; and thus all the materials were ready for a general confla- 
gration. It was first kindled by the Carnutes, and in a short time 
it spread from district to district till almost the whole of Gaul was 
in flames. Even the jEdui, who had been hitherto the faithful al- 
lies of the Romans, and had assisted them in all their wars, subse- 
quently joined the general revolt. At the head of the insurrection 
was Vercingetorix, a young man of noble family belonging to the 
Arverni, and by far the ablest general that Caesar had yet encoun- 
tered. Never before had the Gauls been so united : Caesar's con- 
quests of the last six years seemed to be now entirely lost. The 
campaign of this year, therefore, was by far the most arduous that 
Caesar had yet carried on ; but his genius triumphed over every ob- 
stacle, and rendered it the most brilliant of all. He concentrated 
his forces with incredible rapidity, and lost no time in attacking 
the chief towns in the hands of the enemy. Vellaunodunum (in 
the country of Chateau- Landon), Genabum (Oi'k'ans), and Novio- 
dunum (Nouan, between Orleans and Bourges), fell into his hands 
without difficulty. Alarmed at his rapid progress, Vercingetorix 
persuaded his countrymen to lay waste their country and destroy 
their towns. This plan was accordingly carried into eflfect; but, 
contrary to the wishes of Vercingetorix, Avaricum (Bourges), the 
chief town of the Bituriges, and a strongly-fortified place, was 
spared from the general destruction. This town C»sar accordiuL-ly 



234 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXIII. 

besieged, and, notwithstanding the heroic resistance of the Gauls, 
it was at length taken, and all the inhabitants, men, women, and 
children, were indiscriminately butchered. 

Csesar now divided his army into two parts : one division, con- 
sisting of four legions, he sent, under the command of T. Labienus, 
against the Senones and Parisii ; the other, comprising six legions, 
he led in person into the country of the Arverni, and with them 
laid siege to Gergovia (near Clermont). The revolt of the ^dui 
shortly afterward compelled him to raise the siege, and inspired 
the Gauls with fresh courage. Vercingetorix retired to Alesia 
(Alise, in Burgundy), which was considered impregnable, and re- 
solved to wait for succors from his countrymen. Ca3sar immedi- 
ately laid siege to the place, and drew lines of circumvallation 
around it. The Romans, however, were in their turn soon sur- 
rounded by a vast Gallic army which had assembled to raise the 
siege. Cajsar's army was thus placed in imminent peril, and on 
no occasion in his whole life was his military genius so conspicu- 
ous. He was between two great armies. Vercingetorix had 
70,000 men in Alesia, and the Gallic army without consisted of 
between 250,000 and 300,000 men. Still he would not raise the 
siege. He prevented Vercingetorix from breaking through the 
lines, entirely routed the Gallic army without, and finally com- 
pelled Alesia to surrender. Vercingetorix himself fell into his 
hands. The fall of Alesia was followed by the submission of the 
^dui and Arverni. Cffisar then led his troops into winter quar- 
ters. After receiving his dispatches, the Senate voted him a pub- 
lic thanksgiving of twenty days, as in the year B.C. 55. 

Eighth Campaign, B.C. 51. — The victories of the preceding year 
had determined the fate of Gaul ; but many states still remained 
in arms, and entered into fresh conspiracies during the winter. 
This year was occupied in the reduction of these states, into the 
particulars of which we need not enter. During the winter Ccesar 
employed himself in the pacification of Gaul, and, as he already 
saw that his presence would soon be necessary in Italy, he was 
anxious to remove all causes for future wars. He accordingly im- 
posed no new taxes, treated the states with honor and respect, and 
bestowed great presents upon the chiefs. The experience of the 
last two years had taught the Gauls that they had no hope of con- 
tending successfully against Caesar, and, as he now treated them 
with mildness, they were the more readily induced to submit pa- 
tiently to the Roman yoke. 




Ruins on the Esquiline. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 



INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE RETURN OP CICERO FROM BANISH- 
MENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OP THE CIVIL WAR. EXPEDI- 
TION AND DEATH OP CRASSUS. B.C. 57-^50. 

Cicero returned from banishment an altered man. Though 
his return had been glorious, he saw that his position was entirely 
changed, and he was forced to yield to a power which he no longer 
dared to resist. He even lent his support to the Triumvirs, and 
praised in public those proceedings which he had once openly and 
loudly condemned. Meantime tlie power of Pompey had been 
shaken at Rome. A misunderstanding had sprung up between him 
and Crassus, and Cato and the other leaders of the aristocracy at- 
tacked him with the utmost vehemence. The Senate began to en- 
tertain hopes of recovering their power. They determined to sup- 
port L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, who, in B.C. 5G, had become a can- 
didate for the Consulship for the following year, and who threat- 
ened to deprive Ca?sar of his provinces and armies. Under these 
circumstances Cresar invited Pompey and Crassus to meet liim at 



236 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXIV. 

Luca (Lticca) in the spring of B.C. 56. He reconciled them to each 
otiier, and arranged that they were to be Consuls for the next year, 
and obtain provinces and armies, while he himself was to have his 
government prolonged for another five years, and to receive pay 
for his troops. On their return to Rome, Pompey and Crassus be- 
came candidates for the Consulship ; but Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
supported by Cato and the aristocracy, offered a most determined 
opposition. The Consul Lentulus Marcellinus likewise was re- 
solved to use every means to prevent their election ; and, finding 
it impossible to carry their election while Marcellinus was in office, 
they availed themselves of the veto of two of the Tribunes to pre- 
vent the Consular Comitia from being held this year. The elec- 
tions, therefore, did not take place till the beginning of B.C. 55, un- 
der the presidency of an interrex. Even then Ahenobarbus and 
Cato did not relax in their opposition ; and it was not till the armed 
bands of Pompey and Crassus had cleared the Campus Martius of 
their adversaries that they were declared Consuls for the second 
time (B.C. 55). 

They forthwith proceeded to carry into effect the compact that 
had been made at Luca. They induced the Tribune C. Trebonius 
to bring forward two bills, one of which gave the province of the 
two Spains to Pompey, and that of Syria to Crassus ; the other 
l)rolonged Ccesar's government for five years more, namely, from 
the 1st of January, B.C. 53, to the end of the year 49. Pompey was 
now at the head of the state ; and at the expiration of his year of 
office would no longer be a private man, but with the command of 
an army and in possession of the imperium. With an army he felt 
sure of regaining his former influence. He had now completed the 
theatre which he had been some time building, and, as a means of 
regaining the popular favor, he resolved to open it with an exhibi- 
tion of games of unparalleled splendor and magnificence. The 
building itself was worthy of the conqueror of the East. It was 
the first stone theatre that had been erected at Rome, and was suf- 
ficiently large to accommodate 40,000 spectators. The games ex- 
hibited lasted many days. Eive hundred African lions and eight- 
een elephants were killed. A rhinoceros was likewise exhibited 
on this occasion for the first time. Pompey sent an army into 
Spain under the command of his lieutenants, L. Afranius and M. 
Petreius, while he himself remained in the neighborhood of Rome 
as Proconsul. 

Before the end of the year Crassus set out for Syria, with the 
intention of attacking the Parthians. He was anxious to distin- 
guish himself in war, like Pompey and Ceesar, and, though upward 
of sixty years of age. he chose rather to enter upon an undertaking 



B.C. 53. DEATH OF CEASSUS. 237 

for which he had no genius than to continue the pursuit of wealth 
and influence at home. He crossed the Euphrates in b.c. 54, but, 
hesitating to proceed at once against Parthia, he gave the enemy- 
time to assemble his forces, and returned to Syria without accom- 
plishing any thing of importance. He spent the winter in Syria, 
where, instead of exercising his troops and preparing for the en- 
suing campaign, he plundered the temples, and employed his time 
in collecting money from every quarter. In the following spring 
(b.c. 53) he again crossed the Euphrates, and plunged into the 
sandy deserts of Mesopotamia. He trusted to the guidance of an 
Arabian chieftain, who promised to lead him by the shortest way 
to the enemy. But this man was in the pay of Surenas, the Par- 
thian general ; and when he had brought the Eomans into the open 
plains of Mesopotamia, he seized a frivolous pretext, and rode off 
to inform Surenas that the Eoman army was delivered into his 
hands. The Parthians soon appeared. They worried the dense- 
ly-marshaled Eomans with showers of arrows ; and by feigned re- 
treats, during which they continued to discharge their arrows, they 
led the Eomans into disadvantageous positions. The son of Cras- 
sus, who had distinguished himself as one of Casar's lieutenants in 
Gaul, was slain, and the Eomans, after suffering great loss, retreat- 
ed to Carrhae, the Haran of Scripture. On the following day they 
continued their retreat ; and Surenas, fearing that Crassus might 
after all make his escape, invited him to an interview. He was 
treacherously seized, and, in the scuffle which ensued, was slain by 
some unknown hand. His head was carried to the Parthian king 
Orodes, who caused melted gold to be poured into the mouth, say- 
ing, " Sate thyself now with that metal of which in life thou wert 
so greedy." Twenty thousand Eoman troops were slain, and ten 
thousand taken prisoners, in this expedition, one of the most disas- 
trous in which the Eomans were ever engaged. Only a small por- 
tion of the Eoman army escaped to Syria under the command of 
L. Cassius Longinus, afterward one of C£esar's assassins, who had 
displayed considerable ability during the war, but whose advice 
Crassus had constantly refused to follow. 

The death of Crassus left Pompey and Cassar alone at the head 
of the state, and it became evident that sooner or later a struggle 
Avould take place between them for the supremacy. The death of 
Julia, in B.C. 54, to whom both her father and husband were strong- 
.ly attached, broke a link which might have united them much lon- 
ger. Pompey considered that he had been the chief means of rais- 
ing Cgesar to power, and he appeared long to have deemed it im- 
])ossible that the conqueror of Mithridates could be thrown into the 
shade by any popular leader. Such a result, however, was now im- 



238 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXIV. 

minent. Csesar's brilliant victories in Gaul were in every body's 
mouth, and Pompey saw with ill-disguised mortification that he 
was becoming the second person in the state. Though this did not 
lead him to break with Cassar at once, it made him anxious to 
increase his power and influence, and he therefore now resolved, if 
possible, to obtain the Dictatorship. He accordingly used no ef- 
fort to put an end to the disturbances at Rome between Milo and 
Clodius in this year, in hopes that all parties would be willing 
to accede to his wishes in order to restore peace to the city. Milo 
was a candidate for the Consulship and Clodius for the Frastorship, 
Each was attended by a band of hired ruffians ; battles took place 
between them daily in the Forum and the streets ; all order and 
government were at an end. In such a state of things no elections 
could be held, and the confusion at length became downright an- 
archy, when Milo murdered Clodius on the 20th of January in the 
following year (b.c. 52). The two rivals had met near Bovillae, 
accompanied, as usual, by their armed followers. A fray ensued. 
The party of Milo proved the stronger, and»Clodius took refuge in 
a house. But Milo attacked the house, dragged out Clodius, and 
having dispatched him, left him dead upon the road. His body 
was found by a Senator, carried to Rome, and exposed naked to 
the people. They were violently excited at the sight, and their 
feelings were still farther inflamed by the harangues of the Trib- 
unes. The benches and tables of the Senate-house were seized 
to make a funeral pile for their favorite ; and not only the Sen- 
ate-house, but several other public buildings, were reduced to ashes. 
As the riots still continued, the Senate had no longer any choice 
but to call in the assistance of Pompey. They therefore commis- 
sioned him to collect troops and put an end to the disturbances. 
Pompey, who had obtained the great object of his desires, obeyed 
with alacrity ; he was invested with the supreme power of the state 
by being elected sole Consul on the 25th of February ; and, in or- 
der to deliver the city from Milo and his myrmidons, he brought 
forward laws against violence and bribery at elections. Milo was 
put upon his trial ; the court was siarrounded with soldiers ; Cice- 
ro, who defended him, was intimidated, and Milo was condemned, 
and went into exile at Massilia.* Others shared the same fate, 
and peace was once more restored to the state. 

Pompey's jealousy of Ceesar brought him into connection with 
the aristocratical party. After Julia's death he had married Cor- 

* Cicero pent to Milo at Massilia the oration which he meant to have delivered, 
the one which we still have. Milo, after reading it, remarked, '■'■ I am glad it was 
not delivered, for I should then liave been acquitted, and never have known the 
delicate flavor of these Massilian mullets." 



B.C. 51. POMPEY AND C^SAR. 239 

nelia, the daughter of Metellus Scipio, whom he made his colleague 
on the first of August. His next step was to strike a blow at Css- 
sar. He brought forward an old law that no one should become 
a candidate for a public office while absent, in order that CiEsar 
might be obliged to resign his command, and to place himself in 
the power of his enemies at Rome, if he wished to obtain the Con- 
sulship a second time.* But the renewal of this enactment was so 
manifestly aimed at Caesar that his friends insisted he should be 
specially exempted from it ; and as Pompey was not yet prepared 
to break openly with him, he thought it more expedient to yield. 
At the same time, Pompey provided that he himself should remain 
in command of an army after his rival had ceased to have one, by 
obtaining a senatus consultum, by which his government of the 
Spains was prolonged for another five years. And, in case Ccesar 
should obtain the Consulship, he caused a law to be enacted, in 
virtue of which no one could have a province till five years had 
elapsed from the time of his holding a public office. Such were 
the precautions adopted against Caesar, the uselessness of which 
time soon showed. 

In the following year (b.c. 51) Pompey declared himself still 
more openly on the side of the Senate ; but still he shrank from 
supporting all the violeut measures of the Consul M. Claudius Mar- 
cellus, who proposed to send a successor to Ccesar, on the plea that 
the war in Gaul was finished, and to deprive him of the privilege 
of becoming a candidate for the Consulship in his absence. The 
Consuls for the next year (b.c. 50), L. iEmilius Paullus and C. 
Claudius Marcellus, and the powerful Tribune C. Curio, were all 
reckoned devoted partisans of Pompey and the Senate. Csesar, 
however, gained over Paullus and Curio by large bribes, and with 
a lavish hand distributed immense sums of money among the lead- 
ing men of Rome. It was proposed in the Senate by the Consul 
C. Marcellus that Csesar should lay doAvn his command by the 13th 
of November. But this was an unreasonable demand ; Ctesar's 
government had upward of another year to run ; and if he had 
come to Rome as a private man to sue for the Consulship, there 
can be no doubt that his life would have been sacrificed. Cato 
had declared that he would bring Csesar to trial as soon as he laid 
down his command ; but the trial would have been only a mock- 
ery, for Pompey was in the neighborhood of the city at the head of 
an army, and would have overawed the judges by his soldiery as at 
Milo's trial. The Tribune Curio consequently interposed his veto 

* C'se^ir's government would expire at the end of b.c. 49, and he had therefore 
detenuined to obtain the Consulship for b.c. 4S, since otherwise he would become 
a private person. 



240 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXIV. 

upon the proposition of Marcellus. The Senate, anxious to dimin- 
ish the number of his troops, had, under pretext of a war with the 
Parthians, ordered that Pompey and Csesar should each furnish a 
legion to be sent into the East. The legion which Pompey intend- 
ed to devote to this service was one he had lent to Casar in B.C. 
53, and which he now accordingly demanded back ; and, although 
Ceesar saw that he should thus be deprived of two legions, which 
would probably be employed against himself, he complied with the 
request. Upon their arrival in Italy, they were not sent to the 
East, but were ordered to pass the winter at Capua. Ciesar took 
up his quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province bordering 
upon Italy. 

Though- war seemed inevitable, Cassar still showed himself will- 
ing to enter into negotiations with the aristocracy, and according- 
ly sent Curio with a letter addressed to the Senate, in which he 
expressed his readiness to resign his command if Pompey would 
do the same. Curio arrived at Rome on the 1st of January, B.C. 
49, the day on which the new Consuls, L. Cornelius Lentulus and 
C. Claudius Marcellus, entered upon their office. It was with great 
difficulty that the Tribunes, M. Antonius, afterward the well-known 
Triumvir, and Q. Cassius Longinus, forced the Senate to allow the 
letter to be read. After a violent debate, the motion of Scipio, 
Pompey's father-in-law, was carried, "that Csesar should disband 
his army by a certain day, and that if he did not do so he should 
be regarded as an enemy of the state." On the 6th of January 
the Senate passed the decree investing the Consuls with dictatorial 
power. Antonius and Cassius, considering their lives no longer 
safe, fled from the city in disguise to Csesar's army, and called upon 
him to protect the inviolable persons of the Tribunes. This was 
the crisis. The Senate intrusted the management of the war to 
Pompey, determined that fresh levies of troops should be held, 
and voted a sum of money from the public treasury to Pompey. 
Pompey all along had no apprehensions as to the war ; he thought 
it impossible that CaBsar should ever march against him ; he was 
convinced that his great fame would cause a multitude of troops 
to flock around him whenever he wished. In addition to this, he 
had been deceived as to the disposition of Csesar's troops : he had 
been led to believe that they were ready to desert their general at 
the first opportunity. Consequently, when the war broke out, Pom- 
pey had scarcely any troops except the two legions which he had 
obtained from Caesar, and on the fidelity of which he could by no 
means rely. 




Marcus Brutus. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND CIVIL WAE TO C^SAR's 
DEATH. B.C. 49-44. 

As soon as Caesar learned at Ravenna the last resolution of the 
Senate, he assembled his soldiers, informed them of the wrongs he 
had sustained, and called upon them to support him. Findinc 
them quite willing to support him, he crossed the Rubicon * which 
separated his province from Italy, and occupied Ariminum, where 
he met with the Tribunes. He commenced his enterprise with 
only one legion, consisting of 5000 foot-soldiers and 300 horse • but 
others had orders to follow him from Transalpine Gaul, and he' was 
well aware of the importance of expedition, that the enemy might 
have no time to complete their preparations. Though it was the 
middle of winter, he pushed on with the utmost rapidity, and such 
was the popularity of his cause in Italy, that city after city opened 
Its gates to him, and his march was like a triumphal progress 
Arretium,Pisaurura,Fanum, Ancona, Iguvium, and Auximum fell 

river. But there is not a word of this in Caesar's own narrative. ^ 



242 HISTORY OF EOME. Chap. XXXV. 

into his hands. These successes caused the utmost consternation 
at Rome ; it was reported that Ctesar's cavahy were already at the 
gates ; a general panic seized the Senate, and they fled from the 
city without even taking with them the money from the public 
treasury. Caesar continued his victorious march through Picenum 
till he came to Corfinium, which M. Domitius Ahenobarbus held 
with a strong force ; but, as Pompey did not march to his assist- 
ance, Domitius was unable to maintain the place, and fell himself 
into Caesar's hands, together with several other Senators and dis- 
tinguished men. Ceesar, with the same clemency which he dis- 
played throughout the whole of the Civil War, dismissed them all 
uninjured. He then hastened southward in pursuit of Pompey, 
who had now resolved to abandon Italy. He reached Brundusium 
before Ceesar, but had not sailed when the latter arrived before the 
town. Cffisar straightway laid siege to the place, but Pompey 
abandoned it on the 17th of March, and embarked for Greece. 
Caesar was unable to follow him for want of ships. He accordingly 
marched back from Brundusium, and repaired to Rome, having 
thus in three months become the master of the whole of Italy. 

The only opposition which Caesar met with in Rome was from 
L. Metellus the Tribune, who attempted to prevent him from enter- 
ing the public treasury, though the people had given him permis- 
sion to take from it as much money as he pleased. "Stand aside, 
young man," said Ceesar ; " it is easier for me to do than to say." 
After remaining in the neighborhood of Rome for a short time, he 
set out for Spain, leaving M. Lepidus in charge of the city, and M. 
Antonius in command of the troops in Italy. He sent Curio to 
drive Cato out of Sicily, Q.Valerius to take possession of Sardinia, 
and C. Antonius to occupy Illyricum. Curio and Valerius ob- 
tained possession of Sicily and Sardinia without opposition ; and 
the former then passed over into Africa, which was in possession 
of the Pompeian party. Here, however, he encountered strong op- 
position, and at length was defeated, and lost his life in a battle 
with Juba, king of Mauretania, who supported P. Atius Varus, the 
Pompeian commander. C. Antonius also met with ill success in 
Illyricum, for his army was defeated, and he himself taken prisoner. 
These disasters were more than counterbalanced by Caesar's victo- 
ries in the mean time in Spain. Leaving Rome about the middle 
of April, he found, on his arrival in Gaul, that Massilia refused to 
submit to him. He besieged the place forthwith, but, unable to 
take it immediately, he left C. Trebonius and D. Brutus, with part 
of his troops, to prosecute the siege, and continued his march to 
Spain. On the approach of CiBsar, L. Afranius and M. Petreius, 
the lieutenants of Pompey in Spain, united their forces, and took 



B.C. 49. CIVIL WAR. 243 

up a strong position near the town of Ilerda {Lerida, in Catalonia), 
on the right bank of the Sicoris {Segre). After experiencing great 
difficulties at first and some reverses, Cagsar at length reduced 
Afranius and Petreius to such straits that they were obliged to sur- 
render. They themselves were dismissed uninjured, part of their 
troops disbanded, and the remainder incorporated among Caesar's 
troops. The conqueror then proceeded to march against Varro, 
who commanded two legions in the Farther Province ; but, after 
the victory over Afranius and Petreius, there was no army in Spain 
capable of offering resistance, and Varro accordingly surrendered 
to Ceesar on his arrival at Corduba {Cordova). Having thus sub- 
dued all Spain in forty days, he returned to Gaul. Massilia had 
not yet yielded ; but the siege had been prosecuted with so much 
vigor, that the inhabitants were compelled to surrender the town 
soon after he appeared before the walls. 

During his absence in Spain Cajsar was appointed Dictator by 
the Prastor M. Lepidus, who had been empowered to do so by a 
law passed for the purpose. On his return to Rome Casar as- 
sumed the new dignity, but laid it down again at the end of eleven 
days, after holding the Consular Comitia, in which he himself and 
P. Servilius Vatia were elected Consuls for the next year. But 
during these eleven days he caused some very important laws to 
be passed. The first was intended to relieve debtors, but at the 
same time to protect, to a great extent, the rights of creditors. He 
next restored all exiles ; and, finally, he conferred the full citizen- 
ship upon the Transpadani, who had hitherto held only the Latin 
franchise. 

After laying down the Dictatorship, Cassar went in December to 
Brundusiura, Avhere he had previously ordered his troops to assem- 
ble. He had lost many men in the long march from Spain, and 
also from sickness arising from their passing the autumn in the 
south of Italy. Pompey during the summer had raised a large 
force in Greece, Egypt, and the East, the scene of his former glory. 
He had collected an army consisting of nine legions of Roman cit- 
izens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and infantry ; and his 
forces far surpassed in number those which Cfesar had assembled 
at Brundusium. Moreover, Pompey's fleet, under the command 
of Bibulus, Csesar's colleague in his first Consulship, completely 
commanded the sea. Still Ccesar ventured to set sail from Brun- 
dusium on the 4th of January, and he arrived the next day in safe- 
ty on the coast of Epirus. In consequence, however, of the small 
number of his ships, he was able to carry over only seven legions, 
which, from the causes previously mentioned, had been so thinned 
as to amount only to 15,000 foot and HOO horse. After landing 



2U HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXV. 

this force he sent back his ships to bring over the remainder; but 
part of the fleet was intercepted in its return by M. Bibuhis, who 
kept up such a strict watch along the coast that the rest of Csesar's 
army was obliged for the present to remain at Brundusium. CaBsar 
was thus in a critical position, in the midst of the enemy's country, 
and cut off from the rest of his army ; but he knew that he could 
thoroughly rely on his men, and therefore immediately commenced 
acting on the offensive. After gaining possession of Oricum and 
Apollonia, he hastened northward, in hopes of surprising Dyrrha- 
chium, where all Pompey's stores were deposited ; but Pompey, by 
rapid marches, reached this town before him, and both armies then 
encamped opposite to each other, Pompey on the right, and Ctesar 
on the left bank of the River Apsus. Csesar was now greatly in 
want of re-enforcements, and such was his impatience that he at- 
tempted to sail across the Adriatic in a small boat. The waves 
ran so high that the sailors wanted to turn back, till Csesar discov- 
ered himself, telling them that they carried Ceesar and his fortunes. 
They then toiled on, but the storm at length compelled them to re- 
turn, and with difficulty they reached again the coast of Greece. 
Shortly afterward M. Antonius succeeded in bringing over the re- 
mainder of the army. Pompey meantime had retired to some 
high ground near Dyrrhachium, and, as he would not venture a 
battle with Caesar's veterans, Csesar began to blockade him in his 
position, and to draw lines of circumvallation of an extraordinary 
extent. They were nearly completed when Pompey forced a pas- 
sage through them, and drove back Csesar's legions with considera- 
ble loss. Csesar thus found himself compelled to retreat from his 
present position, and accordingly commenced his march for Thes- 
saly, Pompey's policy of avoiding a general engagement with 
Caesar's veterans till he could place more reliance upon his own 
troops was undoubtedly a wise one, and had been hitherto crowned 
with success ; but he was prevented from carrying out the prudent 
plan which he had formed for conducting the campaign. His camp 
was filled with a multitude of Roman nobles, unacquainted with 
war, and anxious to return to their estates in Italy and to the lux- 
uries of the capital. His unwillingness to fight was set down to 
love of power and anxiety to keep the Senate in subjection. Stung 
with the reproaches with which he was assailed, and elated in 
some degree by his victory at Dyrrhachium, he resolved to bring 
the contest to an issue. Accordingly, he offered battle to Ceesar in 
the plain of Pharsalus, or Pharsalia, in Thessaly. The numbers 
on either side were very unequal: Pompey had 45,000 foot-sol- 
diers and 7000 horse, Csesar 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000 horse. 
The battle, which was fought on the 9th of August, b.c. 48, ac- 



B.C. 48. BATTLE OF PIIARSALIA. 245 

cording to the old calendar,* ended in the total defeat of Pompey's 
army. 

The battle of Pharsalia decided the fate of Pompey and the Re- 
public. Pompey was at once driven to despair. He made no at- 
tempt to rally his forces, though he might still have collected a 
considerable army ; but, regarding every thing as lost, he hurried 
to the sea-coast with a few friends. He embarked on board a 
merchant-ship at the mouth of the River Peneus, and first sailed to 
Lesbos, where he took on board his wife Cornelia, and from thence 
made for Cyprus. He now determined to seek refuge in Egypt, 
as he had been the means of restoring to his kingdom Ptolemy Au- 
letes, the father of the young Egyptian monarch. On his death in 
B.C. 51 Ptolemy Auletes had left directions that his son should 
reign jointly with his elder sister Cleopatra. But their joint reign 
did not last long, for Ptolemy, or, rather, Pothinus and Achillas, 
his chief advisers, expelled his sister from the throne. Cleopatra 
collected a force in Syria, with which she invaded Egypt. The 
generals of Ptolemy were encamped opposite her, near Alexandria, 
Avhen Pompey arrived oif the coast and craved the protection of the 
young king. This request threw Pothinus and Achillas into great 
difficulty, for there were many of Pompey's old soldiers in the 
Egyptian army, and they feared he would become master of Egypt. 
They therefore determined to put him to death. Accordingly, they 
sent out a small boat, took Pompey on board with three or four at- 
tendants, and rowed for the shore. His wife and friends watched 
him from the ship, anxious to see in what manner he would be re- 
ceived by the king, who was standing on the edge of the sea with 
his troops. Just as the boat reached the shore, and Pompey Avas 
in the act of rising from his seat in order to step on land, he was 
stabbed in the back by Septimius, who had formerly been one of 
his centurions. Achillas and the rest then drew their swords; 
whereupon Pompey, without uttering a word, covered his face with 
his toga, and calmly submitted to his fate. He had just completed 
his 58th year. His head was cut off, and his body, which was cast 
naked upon the shore, was buried by his freedman Philippus, who 
had accompanied him from the ship. The head was brought to 
Cfflsar when he arrived in Egypt soon afterward, but he turned 
away from the sight, shed tears at the untimely end of his rival, 
and put his murderers to death. 

When news of the battle of Pharsalia reached Rome, various 

laws were passed which conferred supreme power upon Caesar. 

Though absent, he was nominated Dictator a second time, and for 

a whole year. He appointed M. Antonius his master of the Horse, 

* In 1 eiility on the Cth of June. 



246 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXV. 

and entered upon the office in September of this year (b.c. 48). 
He was also nominated to the Consulship for the next five years, 
though he did not avail himself of this privilege; and he was in- 
vested with the tribunicial power for life. 

Ca3sar went to Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, and upon his arrival 
there he became involved in a war, which detained him several 
months, and gave the remains of the Fompeian party time to rally 
and to make fresh preparations for continuing the struggle. The 
war in Egypt, usually called the Alexandrine War, arose from Cie- 
sar's resolving to settle the disputes respecting the succession to the 
kingdom. He determined that Cleopatra, whose fascinations com- 
pletely won his heart, and her brother Ptolemy, should reign in 
common, according to the provisions of their father's will ; but as 
this decision was opposed by the guardians of the young king, a 
war broke out between them and Caesar, in which he was for some 
time exposed to great danger on account of the small number of 
his troops. But, having received re-enfarcements, he finally pre- 
vailed, and placed Cleopatra and her younger brother on the 
throne, the elder having perished in- the course of the contest. 
Cleopatra afterward joined Ciesar at Rome, and bore him a son 
named CiBsarion. 

After bringing the Alexandrine "War to a close, toward the end 
of March, b.c. 47, Caesar marched through Syria into Pontus in or- 
der to attack Pharnaces, the son of the celebrated Mithridates, who 
had defeated Cn. Domitius Calvinus, one of Caesar's lieutenants. 
This war, however, did not detain him long ; for Pharnaces, ven- 
turing to come to an open battle with the Dictator, was utterly de- 
feated on the 2d of August near Zela. It was in reference to this 
victory that Csesar sent the celebrated laconic dispatch to the Sen- 
ate, Veni, vidi, vici, "I came, I saw, I conquered." He then pro- 
ceeded to Rome, caused himself to be appointed Dictator for an- 
other year, and nominated M. iEmilius Lepidus his Master of the 
Horse. At the same time he quelled a formidable mutiny of his 
troops which had broken out in Campania. 

Caesar did not remain in Rome more than two or three months. 
With his usual activity and energy he set out to Africa before the 
end of the year (b.c. 47), in order to carry on the war against 
Scipio and Cato, who had collected a large army in that country. 
Their forces were far greater than those which CjBsar could bring 
against them ; but he had too much reliance on his own genius to 
be alarmed by mere disparity of numbers. At first he was in con- 
siderable diflicult^es ; but, having been joined by some of his other 
legions, he was able to prosecute the campaign with more vigor, 
and- finally brought it to a close by the battle of Thapsus, on the 



B.C. 47. DEATH OF CATO AT UTICA. 247 

Gtli of April, B.C. 46, in which the Pompeian army was completely 
defeated. All Africa now submitted to Caesar with the exception 
of Utica, which Cato commanded. The inhabitants saw that re- 
sistance was hopeless ; and Cato, who was a sincere Republican, 
resolved to die rather than submit to Ctesar's despotism. After 
spending the gi*eater part of the night in perusing Plato's Phcedo, a 
dialogue on the immortality of the soul, he stabbed himself. His 
friends, hearing him fall, ran up, found him bathed in blood, and, 
while he was fainting, dressed his Avounds. When, however, he 
recovered feeling, he tore off the bandages, and so died. 

Ccesar returned to Rome by the end of July. He was now un- 
disputed master of the Roman world. Great apprehensions were 
entertained by his enemies lest, notwithstanding his former clem- 
ency, he should imitate Marius and Sulla, and proscribe all his op- 
ponents. But these fears were perfectly groundless. A love of 
cruelty was no part of Csesar's nature ; and, with a magnanimity 
Avhich victors rarely show, and least of all those in civil wars, he 
freely forgave all who had borne arms against him, and declared 
that he should make no difference between Pompeians and Ctesar- 
ians. His object was now to allay animosities, and to secure the 
lives and property of all the citizens of his empire. As soon as 
the news of his African victory reached Rome a public thanksgiv- 
ing of forty days was decreed in his honor ; the Dictatorship was 
bestowed upon him for ten years ; and the Censorship, under the 
new title of "Prsefectus Morum," for three years. Cajsar had 
never yet enjoyed a triumph ; and, as he had now no farther ene- 
mies to meet, he availed himself of the opportunity of celebrating 
his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, by four magnificent 
triumphs. None of these, however, were in honor of his successes 
in the civil war; and consequently his African triumph was to 
commemoi-ate his victory over Juba, and not over Scipio and Cato. 
These triumphs were followed by largesses of corn and money to 
the people and the soldiers, by public banquets, and all sorts of en- 
tertainments. 

CjBsar now proceeded to correct the various evils which had 
crept into the state, and to obtain the enactment of several laws 
suitable to the altered condition of the commonwealth. He at- 
tempted, by severe sumptuary laws, to restrain the extravagance 
which pervaded all classes of society. But the most impoi'tant of 
his changes this year (b.c. 46) was the reformation of the Calen- 
dar, which was a real benefit to his country and the civilized world, 
and which he accomplished in his character as Pontifex Maximus. 
The regulation of the Roman calendar had always been intrusted 
to the College of Pontiffs, who had been accustomed to lengthen 



248 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXV. 

or shorten the year at their pleasure for political purposes; and 
the confusion had at length become so great that the Roman year 
was three months behind the real time. To remedy this serious 
evil, CaBsar added 90 days to the current year, and thus made it 
consist of 445 days ; and he guarded against a repetition of similar 
errors for the future by adapting the year to the sun's course. 

In the midst of these labors Caesar was interrupted by intelli- 
gence of a formidable insurrection which had broken out in Spain, 
where the remains of the Pompeian party had again collected a 
large army under the command of Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sex- 
tus. Caesar set out for Spain at the end of b.c. 46. With his 
usual activity he arrived at Obulco, near Corduba, in 27 days from 
the time of his leaving Rome. He found the enemy able to offer 
stronger opposition than he had anticipated ; but he brought the 
war to a close by the battle of Munda, on the 17th of March, b.c. 
45, in which he entirely defeated the enemy. It was, however, a 
hard-fought battle : Caesar's troops were at first driven back, and 
were only rallied by their general's exposing his own person, like a 
common soldier, in the front line of the battle. Cn. Pompeius was 
killed shortly afterward, but Sextus made good his escape. The 
settlement of the affairs in Spain detained Caesar in the pi'ovince 
some months longer, and he consequently did not reach Rome till 
September. At the beginning of October he entered the city in 
triumph on account of his victories in Spain, although the victory 
had been gained over Eoman citizens. The Senate received him 
with the most servile flattery. They had in his absence voted a 
public thanksgiving of fifty days, and they now vied with each 
other in paying him every kind of adulation and homage. He was 
to wear, on all public occasions, the triumphal robe ; he was to re- 
ceive the title of "Father of his Country ;" statues of him were to 
be placed in all the temples ; his portrait was to be struck on 
coins; the month of Quintilis was to receive the name of Julius ia 
his honor, and he was to be raised to a rank among the gods. But 
there were still more important decrees than these, which were in- 
tended to legalize his power, and confer upon him the whole gov- 
ernment of the Roman world. He received the title of Imperator 
for life ; he was nominated Consul for the next ten years, and both 
Dictator and Prsefectus Morum for life ; his person was declared 
sacred ; a guard of Senators and Knights was appointed to protect 
him, and the whole Senate took an oath to watch over his safety. 

If we now look at the way in which Caesar exerted his sovereign 
power, it can not be denied that he used it in the main for the good 
of his country. He still (pursued his former merciful cdurse : no 
proscriptions or executions took place ; and he began to revolve vast 



B.C. 44. CESAR'S RULE. 24J) 

schemes for the benefit of the Roman world. At the same time he 
was obliged to reward his followers, and for that reason he greatly 
increased the number of senators and magistrates, so that there 
were 16 Praetors, 40 Qucestors, and 6 -3<^diles, and new members 
were added to the priestly colleges. Among other plans of inter- 
nal improvement, he proposed to frame a digest of all the Roman 
laws, to establish public libraries, to drain the Pomptine marshes, 
to enlarge the harbor of Ostia, and to dig a canal through the isth- 
mus of Corinth. To protect the boundaries of the Roman Empire, 
he meditated expeditions against the Parthians and the barbarous 
tribes on the Danube, and had already begun to make preparations 
for his departure to the East. In the midst of these vast projects 
he entered upon the last year of his life, b.c. 44, and his fifth Con- 
sulship and Dictatorship. He had made M. Antonius his col- 
league in the Consulship, and M. Lepidus the Master of the Horse. 
He had for some time past resolved to preserve the supreme power 
in his family ; and, as he had no legitimate children, he had fixed 
upon his great-nephew Octavius (afterward the Emperor Augus- 
tus) as his successor. Possessing royal power, he now wished to 
obtain the title of king, and accordingly prevailed upon his col- 
league Antonius to offer him the diadem in public on the festival 
of the Lupercalia (the 15th of February). But the very name of 
king had long been hateful at Rome ; and the people displayed 
such an evident dislike to the proposal that it was dropped for the 
present. 

The conspiracy against Csesar's life had been formed as early as 
the beginning of the year. It had been set on foot by C. Cassius 
Longinus, a personal enemy of Csesar's, and more than sixty per- 
sons were privy to it. Private hatred alone seems to have been 
the motive of Cassius, and probably of several others. Many of 
them had taken an active part in the war against Cagsar, and had 
not only been forgiven by him, but raised to offices of rank and 
honor. Among others was M. Junius Brutus, who had been par- 
doned by Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, and had since been 
treated almost as his son. In this very year Caesar had made him 
Prsetor, and held out to him the prospect of the Consulship, Bru- 
tus, like Cato, seems to have been a sincere Republican, and Cas- 
sius persuaded him to join the conspiracy, and imitate his great 
ancestor who freed them from the Tarquins. It was now arranged 
to assasinate the Dictator in the Senate-house on the Ides or 15th 
of March. Rumors of the plot got abroad, and Ccesar was strongly 
urged not to attend the Senate. But he disregarded the warnings 
which wei-e given him. As he entered, the Senate rose to do him 
honor ; and when he had taken his seat, the conspirators pressed 



250 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXV. 

around him as if to support the prayer of Tillius Cimber, who en- 
treated the Dictator to recall his brother from banishment. When 
Cajsar began to show displeasure at their importunity, TilHus seized 
him by his toga, which was the signal for attack. Casca struck 
the first blow, and the other conspirators bared their weapons. 
Caisar defended himself till he saw Brutus had drawn his sword, 
and then exclaiming, "And thou, too, Brutus!" he drew his toga 
over his head, and fell pierced with three-and-twenty wounds at 
the foot of Pompey's statue. 




(Join of Julius Csesar. 

Caesar's death was undoubtedly a loss not only to the Roman 
people, but the whole civilized world. The Republic was uttei'ly 
lost. The Roman world was now called to go through many years 
of disorder and bloodshed, till it rested again under the supremacy 
of Augustus. The last days of the Republic had come^ and its 
only hope of peace and security was under the strong hand of mil- 
itary power. 

Csesar was in his 56th year at the time of his death. His per- 
sonal appearance was noble and commanding ; he was tall in stat- 
ure, of a fair complexion, and with black eyes full of expression. 
He never wore a beard, and in the latter part of his life his bead 
was bald. His constitution was originally delicate, and he was 
twice attacked by epilepsy while transacting public business 5 but, 
by constant exercise and abstemious living, he had acquired strong 
and vigorous health, and could endure almost any amount of exer- 
tion. He took pains with his person, and was considered to be ef- 
feminate in his dress. 

Cassar was probably the greatest man of antiquity. He was at 
one and the same time a general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, 
an orator, a poet, a historian, a philologer, a mathematician, and an 
architect. He was equally fitted to excel in every thing, and has 
given proofs that he would have surpassed almost all other men in 
any subject to which he devoted the energies of his extraordinary 
mind. One fact places his genius for war in a most striking light. 
Till his 40th year, when he went as Proprastor into Spain, he had 
been almost entirely engaged in civil life and his military expe- 



B.C. 44. CHARACTER OF C^SAR. 251 

rience must have been of the most limited kind. Most of the 
greatest generals in the history of the world have been distinguished 
at an early age : Alexander the Great, Hannibal, Frederick of Prus- 
sia, and Napoleon Bonaparte, gained some of their most brilliant 
victories under the age of 30 ; but Cissar, from the age of 23 to 40, 
had seen nothing of war, and, notwithstanding, appears all at once 
as one of the greatest generals that the world has ever seen. 




> 
Statue of a Eoman, representing the Toga. 




M. Antonius. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

FROM THE DEATH OF CiESAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. 
B.C. 44-42. 

When the bloody deed had been finished, Brutus and the other 
conspirators rushed into the forum, proclaiming that they had killed 
the Tyrant, and calling the people to join them ; but they met with 
no response, and, finding alone averted looks, they retired to the 
Capitol. Here they were joined by Cicero, who had not been privy 
to the conspiracy, but was now one of the first to justify the mur- 
der. Meantime the friends of Ceesar were not idle. M. Lepidus, 
the Master of the Horse, who was in the neighborhood of the city, 
marched into the Campus Martins in the night ; and M. Antony 
hastened to the house of the Dictator, and took possession of his 
papers and treasures. But both parties feared to come to blows. 
A compromise was agreed to ; and at a meeting of the Senate it 
was determined that Ca3sai-'s murderers should not be punished, 
but, on the other hand, that all his regulations should remain in 
force, that the provisions of his will should be carried into effect, 
and that he should be honored with a public funeral. The con- 



B.C. 44. CESAR'S WILL. OCTAVIUS. 253 

spirators descended from the Capitol ; and, as a proof of reconcili- 
ation, Cassius supped with Antony and Brutus with Lepidus. 

This reconciliation was only a pretense. Antony aspired to suc- 
ceed to the power of the Dictator ; and, to rouse the popular fury 
against the conspirators, Caesar's will was immediately made public. 
He left as his heir his gi-eat-nephew Octavius, a youth of 18, the 
son of Atia, the daughter of his sister Julia. He bequeathed con- 
siderable legacies to his murderers. He gave his magnificent gar- 
dens beyond the Tiber to the public, and to every Roman citizen 
he bequeathed the sum of 300 sesterces (between £2 and £3 ster- 
ling). When this became known a deep feeling of sorrow for the 
untimely fate of their benefactor seized the minds of the people. 
Their feelings were raised to the highest point two or three days 
afterward, when the funeral took place. The body was to be burned 
in the Campus Martius, but it was previously carried to the forum, 
where Antony, according to custom, pronounced the funeral ora- 
tion over it. After relating the exploits of the great Dictator, re- 
citing his will, and describing his terrible death, he lifted up the 
blood-stained robe which Caesar had worn in the Senate-house, 
and which had hitherto covered the corpse, and pointed out the 
numerous wounds which disfigured the body. At this sight a yell 
of indignation was raised, and the mob rushed in every direction 
to tear the murderers to pieces. The conspirators fled for their 
lives from the city. The poet Helvius Cinna, being mistaken for 
the Prgetor Cinna, one of the assassins, was sacrificed on the spot 
before the mistake could be explained. 

Antony was now master of Rome. Being in possession of Cse- 
sar's papers, he was able to plead the authority of the Dictator for 
every thing which he pleased. The conspirators hastened to take 
possession of the provinces which Caesar had assigned to them. 
Dec. Brutus repaired to Cisalpine Gaul, M. Brutus to Macedonia, 
and Cassius to Syria. Antony now made a disposition of the 
provinces, taking Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and giving Macedonia 
to his brother C. Antonius, and Syria to Dolabella. 

Meantime a new actor appeared upon the stage. Octavius was 
at Apollonia, a town on the coast of Illyricum, at the time of his 
uncle's death. Casar had determined to take his nephew with 
him in his expedition against the Parthians, and had accordingly 
sent him to Apollonia, where a camp had been formed, that he 
might pursue his military studies. The soldiers now offered to 
follow him to Italy and avenge their leader's death, but he did not 
yet venture to take this decisive step. He determined, however, 
to sail at once to Italy, accompanied by only a few friends. Upon 
arriving at Brundusium he heard of the will of the Dictator, and 



254 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVI. 

was sainted by the soldiers as Caesar. As the adopted heir of his 
uncle his proper name was now C. Julius Cajsar Octavianus, and 
by the last of these names we shall henceforth call him. He now 
made up his mind to proceed to Rome and claim his uncle's inher- 
itance, in opposition to the advice of his mother, who dreaded this 
dangerous honor for her son. Upon arriving at Rome he declared 
before the Prjetor, in the usual manner, that he accepted the in- 
heritance, and he then promised the people to pay the money be- 
queathed to them. He even ventured to claim of Antony the 
treasures of his uncle ; but, as the latter refused to give them up, 
he sold the other property, and even his own estates, to discharge 
all the legacies. Antony threw every obstacle in his way ; but the 
very name of Ccesar worked wonders, and the liberality of the 
young man gained the hearts of the people. He had, indeed, a dif- 
ficult part to play. He could not join the murderers of his uncle ; 
and yet Antony, their greatest enemy, was also his most dangerous 
foe. In these difficult circumstances the youth displayed a pru- 
dence and a wisdom which baffled the most experienced politicians. 
Without committing himself to any party, he professed a warm at- 
tachment to the Senate. Cicero had once more taken an active 
part in public affairs ; and Octavian, with that dissimulation which 
he practiced throughout his life, completely deceived the veteran 
orator. On the 2d of September Cicero delivered in the Senate 
the first of his orations against Antony, which, in imitation of those 
of Demosthenes against Philip, are known by the name of the Phil- 
ippics. Antony was absent at the time, but shortly afterward at- 
tacked the orator in unmeasured terms. Cicero replied in the 
Second Philippic, one of the most violent invectives ever written. 
It was not spoken, but was published soon after Antony had quitted 
Rome. 

Meantime the emissaries of Octavian had been sounding the dis- 
position of the soldiers, and had already enlisted for him a consid- 
erable number of troops in various parts of Italy. Antony saw 
that the power was slipping from under his feet. Two of the le- 
gions which he had sent from Epirus passed over to Octavian ; and, 
in order to keep the remainder under his standard, and to secure 
the north of Italy to his interests, Antony now proceeded to Cisal- 
pine Gaul, which had been previously granted to him by the Sen- 
ate. Upon entering the province toward the end of November, 
Dec. Brutus threw himself into Mutina {Modena)^ to which Antony 
laid siege. 

Soon after Antony's departure Cicero prevailed upon the Senate 
to declare Antony a public enemy, and to intrust to the young Oc- 
tavian the conduct of the war against him. Cicero was now at the 



B.C. 43. OCTAVIAN'S STKUGGLE FOR POWER. 255 

height of his gloiy. His activity was unceasing, and in the twelve 
remaining "Philippics" he encouraged the Senate and the people 
to prosecute the war with vigor. The two new Consuls (b.c. 43) 
were A. Hirtius and C. Vibius Pansa, both of whom had been des- 
ignated by the late Dictator. As soon as they had entered upon 
their office, Hirtius, accompanied by Octavian, marched into Cis- 
alpine Gaul, while Pansa remained in the city to levy troops. For 
some weeks no movement of importance took place in either army ; 
but when Pansa set out to join his colleague and Octavian, Antony 
marched southward, attacked him at Forum Gallorum, near Bono- 
nia {Bologna), and gained a victory over him (April 14). Pansa 
was mortally wounded ; but Hirtius retrieved this disaster by sud- 
denly attacking Antony the same evening on his return to the camp 
at Mutina. A few days afterward (April 27th) a more decisive 
battle took place before Mutina. Antony was defeated with great 
loss, but Hirtius fell in leading an assault on the besiegers' camp. 
The death of the two Consuls left Octavian the sole command ; 
and so timely was their removal that he was accused by many of 
murdering them. 

Antony now found it impossible to continue the siege of Mutina, 
but he retreated in good order northward, crossed the Alps, and 
was well received in Farther Gaul by Lepidus, who had promised 
him support. Meantime the good understanding between Octavian 
and the Senate had come to an end. The lattei*, being resolved to 
prevent him from obtaining any farther power, gave the command 
of the Consular armies to D. Brutus ; and Cicero talked of remov- 
ing the boy. But the "boy" soon showed the Senate that he was 
their master. He gained the confidence of the soldiers, who gladly 
followed the heir of Caesar to Rome. Though only 20 years of 
age, he demanded of the Senate the Consulship. At first they at- 
tempted to evade his demand ; but his soldiers were encamped in 
the Campus Martins, and in the month of August he was elected 
Consul with his cousin Q. Pedius. The first act of his Consulship 
showed that he had completely broken with the Senate. His col- 
league proposed a law declaring all the murderers of Csesar to be 
outlaws. Octavian then quitted Rome to march professedly against 
Antony, leaving Pedius in charge of the city ; but it soon appeared 
that he had come to an understanding with Antony, for he had 
hardly entered Etruria before the unwilling Senate Avere compelled, 
upon the proposal of Pedius, to repeal the sentence of outlawry 
against Antony and Lepidus. These two were now descending the 
Alps at the head of 17 legions. Octavian was advancing north- 
ward with a formidable army. Between two such forces the situa- 
tion of D. Brutus was hopeless. He was deserted by his own 



256 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVI. 

troops, and fled to Aquileia, intending to cross over to Macedonia, 
but was put to death in the former place by order of Antony. 

Lepidus, who acted as mediator between Antony and Octavian, 
now arranged a meeting between them on a small island near Bo- 
nonia, formed by the waters of the River Rhenus, a tributary of 
the Po. The interview took place near the end of November. It 
was arranged that the government of the Roman world should be 
divided between the three for a period of five years, under the title 
of ' ' Triumvirs for settling the affairs of the Republic."* Octavian 
received Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa ; Antony the two Gauls, with 
the exception of the Narbonese district, which, with Spain, was as- 
signed to Lepidus. Octavian and Antony were to prosecute the 
war against Brutus and Cassius, who were in possession of the 
eastern provinces. Lepidus was to receive the Consulship for the 
following year, with the charge of Italy. 

The Triumvirs next proceeded to imitate the example of Sulla 
by drawing up a Proscription — a list of persons whose lives were to 
be sacrificed and property confiscated. But they had not Sulla's 
excuse. He returned to Italy exasperated to the highest degree 
by the murder of his friends and the personal insults he had re- 
ceived. The Triumvirs, out of a cold-blooded policy, resolved to 
remove every one whose opposition they feared or whose property 
they coveted. In drawing up the fatal list, they sacrificed without 
scruple their nearest relatives and friends. To please Antony, 
Octavian gave up Cicero ; Antony, in return, surrendered his own 
uncle, L. Csesar; and Lepidus sacrificed his own brother Paullus.' 
As many as 300 Senators and 2000 Equites were entered on the 
lists. 

As soon as the Triumvirs had made their secret an*angements 
they marched toward Rome. Hitherto they had published the 
names of only 17 of the Proscribed; but the city was in a state of 
the utmost alarm, and it was with difficulty that Pedius could pre- 
serve the peace. So great were his anxiety and fatigue that he 
died the night before the entry of the Triumvirs into the city. 
They marched into Rome at the head of their legions, and filled all 
the public places with their soldiery. No attempt at resistance was 
made. A law was proposed and carried conferring upon the Tri- 
umvirs the title and powers they had assumed. The work of 
butchery then commenced. Lists after lists of the Proscribed 
were then published, each more numerous than the former. The 
soldiers hunted after the victims, cut off their heads, and brought 
them to the authorities to prove their claims to the blood-money. 
Slaves were rewarded for betraying their masters, and whoever har- 
• Triumviri Reipnblicce constituendce. 



B.C. 43. MURDER OF CICERO. 257 

bored any of the Proscribed was punished with death. Terror 
reigned throughout Italy. No one knew whose tura would come 
next. 

Cicero was included in the first 17 victims of the Proscription. 
He was residing in his Tusculan A^lla with his brother Quintus, 
who urged him to escape to Brutus in Macedonia. They reached 
Astura, a small island off Antium, when Quintus ventured to Rome 
to obtain a supply of money, of which they were in need. Here 
he was apprehended, together with his son, and both were put to 
death. The orator again embarked, and coasted along to Formiis, 
where he landed at his villa, resolving no longer to fly from his 
fate. After spending a night in his own house, his attendants, 
hearing that the soldiers were close at hand, forced him to enter a 
litter, and hurried him through the woods toward the shore, distant 
a mile from his house. As they were passing onward they were 
overtaken by their pursuers, and were preparing to defend their 
master with their lives; but Cicero commanded them to desist, and, 
stretching his head out of the litter, called upon his executioners to 
strike. They instantly cut off his head and hands, wliich were 
carried to Rome. Fulvia, the widow of Clodius and now the wife 
of Antony, gloated her eyes with the sight, and even thrust a hair- 
pin through his tongue. Antony ordei'ed the head to be nailed to 
the Rostra, which had so often witnessed the triumphs of the ora- 
tor. Thus died Cicero, in the 64th year of his age. He had not 
sufficient firmness of character to cope with the turbulent times in 
which his lot was cast, but as a man he deserves our admiration 
and love. In the midst of almost universal corruption he remained 
uncontaminated. He was an affectionate father, a faithful friend, 
and a kind master. 

Many of the Proscribed escaped from Italy, and took refuge with 
Sextus Pompey in Sicily, and with Brutus and Cassius in the East. 
After the death of Caesar, the Senate appointed Sextus Pompey to 
the command of the Republican fleet. He had become master of 
Sicily ; his fleet commanded the Mediterranean ; and Rome began 
to suffer from want of its usual supplies of corn. It was arranged 
that Octavian should attempt the conquest of Sicily, while Antony 
was preparing for the campaign in the East. A fleet under Salvi- 
dienus Rufus was sent against Pompey, but was defeated by the 
latter in the Straits of Sicily, in sight of Octavian. But the war 
against Brutus and Cassius was more urgent, and accordingly Oc- 
tavian and Antony sailed shortly afterward to the East, leaving 
Pompey undisputed master of the sea. 

On quitting Italy, Brutus had first gone to Athens. The re- 
mains of the Pompeian legions, which continued in Greece after 

R 



258 HISTORY OF EOME. Chap. XXXVI. 

the battle of Pharsalia, gathered round him ; Hortensius, the gov- 
ernor of Macedonia, acknowledged him as his successor ; and C. 
Antonius, whom his brother had sent over to take the cpmmand 
of the pi'ovince, was obliged to surrender to Brutus. 

His colleague had been equally fortunate in Syria. Dolabella, 
to whom Antony had given this province, was besieged in Laodi- 
cea by Cassius, and put an end to his own life. 

These events took place in b.c. 43. Brutus and Cassius v/ere 
now masters of the Roman world east of the Adriatic. It was evi- 
dent that their enemies before long would cross over into Greece; 
but, instead of concentrating their forces in that country, they be- 
gan to plunder the cities of Asia Minor, in order to obtain money 
for their troops. Brutus pillaged Lycia, and Cassius Rhodes. The 
inhabitants of the Lycian town of Xanthus refused to submit to the 
exactions of Brutus, made an heroic defense when they were at- 
tacked, and preferred to perish in the flames of their city rather 
than to yield. Brutus and Cassius were thus engaged when the 
news of the Triumvirate and the Proscription reached them ; but 
they continued some time longer plundering in the East, and it 
was not till the spring of b.c. 42 that the Republican chiefs at 
length assembled their forces at Sardis, and prepared to march 
into Europe. So much time, however, had now been lost, that 
Antony and Octavian landed upon the coast of Greece, and had 
already commenced their march toward Macedonia before Brutus 
and Cassius had quitted Asia. 

Brutus seems to have had dark forebodings of the approaching 
struggle. He continued his studious habits during the campaign, 
and limited his sleep to a very short time. On the night before his 
army crossed over into Europe he was sitting in his tent, the lamp 
burning dim, and the whole camp in deep silence, when he saw a 
gigantic and terrible figure standing by him. He had the courage 
to ask, "Who art thou, and for what purpose dost thou come?" 
The phantom replied, "I am thy evil genius, Brutus; we shall 
meet again at Philippi !" and vanished. 

Brutus and Cassius marched through Thrace and Macedonia to 
Philippi, where they met the army of the Triumvirs. The Repub- 
lican leaders took up their positions on two heights distant a mile 
from each other, Brutus pitching his camp on the northern, and 
Cassius on the southern, near the sea. The camps, though separate, 
were inclosed with a common intrenchment, and midway between 
them was the pass which led like a gate from Europe to Asia. 
The Triumvirs were on the lower ground, in a less favorable posi- 
tion — Octavian opposite Brutus, and Antony opposite Cassius. 
Their troops began to suffer from want of provisions, and they en- 



B.C. 42. 



BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. 



261 



deavored to force the Republican leaders to an engagement. Cas- 
sias Avas unwilling to quit his strong position, and recommended 
that they should wait for their fleet ; but Brutus was anxious to 
put an end to this state of suspense, and persuaded the council to 
risk an immediate battle. Brutus himself defeated the army op- 
posite to him, and penetrated into the camp of Octavian, who was 
lying ill, unable to take part in the battle. His litter was seized, 
and brought forth covered with blood, and a report spread that he 
had been killed. Meantime, on the other side of the field, Antony 
had driven back Cassius, and taken his camp. Cassius had retired 
to a neighboring hill with some of his men, when he saw a large 
body of cavalry approaching. Thinking that they belonged to the 
enemy and that every thing was lost, he ordered one of his freed- 
men to put an end to his life. But the cavalry had lieen sent by 
Brutus to obtain news of Cassius ; and when he heard of the death 
of his colleague, he wept over him as " the last of tlie Romans," a 
eulogy which Cassius had done nothing to deserve. 

Twenty days after the first battle Brutus again led out his forces ; 
but this time he was completely defeated, and with difficulty es- 
caped from the field. He withdrew into a wood, and in the night- 
time fell upon his sword, which Strato, who had been his teacher in 
rhetoric, held for him. His wife Porcia, the daughter of Cato, re- 
solved not to survive her husband ; and, being closely watched by 
her relations, she put an end to her life by thrusting burning char- 
coal into her mouth. Brutus was doubtless a sincere Republican, 
but he was a man of weak judgment, deficient in knowledge of 
mankind, and more fitted for a life of study than the command of 
armies and the government of men. 




Coin of Antony and Cleopatra. 




M. Agrippa. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

FROM THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. 
B.C. 41-30. 

The battle of Philippi sealed the fate of the Republic. Antony- 
remained in the East to collect money for the soldiers. Octavian, 
who was in ill health, returned to Italy to give the veterans the 
lands which had been promised them. Antony traversed Asia 
Minor, plundering the unfortunate inhabitants, who had already 
suffered so severely from the exactions of Brutus and Cassius. In 
the voluptuous cities of Asia he surrendered himself to every kind 
of sensual enjoyment. He entered Ephesus in the character of 
Bacchus, accompanied by a wild procession of women dressed like 
Bacchantes, and men and youths disguised as Satyrs and Pans. 
At Tarsus, in Cilicia, whither he had gone to prepare for the war 
against the Parthians,he was visited by Cleopatra. He had sum- 
moned her to his presence to answer for her conduct in supplying 
Cassius with money and provisions. She was now in her 28th year, 
and in the full maturity of her charms. In her 15th year her 



B.C. 41. WAR OF PERUSIA. 2G3 

beauty had made an impression on the heart of Antony, when he 
was at Alexandria with Gabinius, and she now trusted to make him 
her wiUing slave. She sailed uj) the Cydnus to Tarsus in a mag- 
nificent vessel with purple sails, pi-opelled by silver oars to the 
sound of luxurious music. She herself reclined under an awning 
spangled with gold, attired as Venus and fanned by Cupids. The 
most beautiful of her female slaves held the rudder and the ropes. 
The perfumes burnt upon the vessel filled the banks of the river 
with their fragrance. The inhabitants cried that Venus had come 
to revel with Bacchus. Antony accepted her invitation to sup on 
board her galley, and Avas completely subjugated. Her wit and 
vivacity surpassed even her beauty. He followed her to Alexan- 
dria, where he forgot every thing in luxurious dalliance and the 
charms of her society. 

Meantime important events had been taking place in Italy. Oc- 
tavian found immense difficulties in satisfying the demands of the 
veterans. All Italy was thrown into confusion. Though he ex- 
pelled thousands from their homes in Cisalpine Gaul, in order to 
give their farms to his soldiers, they still clamored for more. Those 
who had obtained assignments of land seized upon the property 
of their neighbors, and those who had not were ready to rise in 
mutiny. The country people, who had been obliged to yield their 
property to the rude soldiery, filled Italy with their complaints, 
and flocked to Rome to implore in vain the protection of Octavian. 
Even if he had the wish, he had not the power to control his sol- 
diers. Fulvia, the wife of Antony, who had remained behind in 
Italy, resolved to avail herself of those elements of confusion, and 
crush Octavian. She was a bold and ambitious woman ; she saw 
that, sooner or later, the struggle must come between her husband 
and Octavian ; and, by precipitating the war, she hoped to bring 
her husband to Italy, and thus withdraw him from the influence of 
Cleopatra. L. Antonius, the brother of the Triumvir, who was 
Consul this year (b.c. 41), entered into her views. They pro- 
claimed themselves the patrons of the unfortunate Italians, and 
also promised to the discontented soldiery that the Triumvir would 
recompense them with the spoils of Asia. By these means they 
soon saw themselves at the head of a considerable force. They 
even obtained possession of Rome. But Agrippa, the ablest general 
of Octavian, forced them to quit the city, and pressed them so hard 
that they were obliged to take refuge in Perusia {Pei-iigio?), one of 
the most powerful cities of Etruria. Here they were besieged dur- 
ing the winter, and suflTered so dreadfully from famine that they 
found themselves compelled to capitulate in the following spring. 
The lives of L. Antonius and Fulvia were spared, l)ut the chief cit- 



264 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVII. 

izens of Perusia itself Avcre put to death, and the town burnt to 
the ground. 

While Antony's friends were thus unfortunate in Italy, his own 
forces experienced a still greater disaster in the East. Q. Labienus, 
the son of Ciesar's old lieutenant in Gaul, had been sent by Brutus 
and Cassias to seek aid from Orodes, the king of Parthia. He was 
in that country when the news arrived of the battle ofPhilippi, and 
had remained there up to the present time. The war in Italy, and 
Antony's indolence at Alexandria, held out a favorable opportunity 
for the invasion of the Roman provinces. Orodes placed a large 
army under the command of Labienus and his own son Pacorus. 
They crossed the Euphrates in b.c. 40, and carried CA'ery thing be- 
fore them. Antony's troops were defeated ; the two powerful cities 
of Antioch and Apamea were taken, and the whole of Syria over- 
run by the Parthians. Pacorus penetrated as far south as Pales- 
tine, and Labienus invaded Cilicia. Such alarming news, l)Oth 
from Italy and the East, at length aroused Antony from his volup- 
tuous dreams. Leaving his lieutenant Ventidius in Syria to con- 
duct the war against the Parthians, Antony sailed to Athens, where 
he met his brother and wife. He now formed an alliance with 
Sextus Pompey, sailed to Italy, and laid siege to Brundusium. 
Another civil war seemed inevitable ; but the soldiers on both sides 
were eager for peace, and mutual friends persuaded the chiefs to 
be reconciled, which was the more easily effected in consequence 
of the death of Fulvia at Sicyon. A new division of the Roman 
world was now made. Antony was to have all the eastern prov- 
inces and Octavian the western, the town of Scodra, in Illyricum, 
forming the boundary between them. Italy was to belong to them 
in common. Lepidus was allowed to retain possession of Africa, 
which he had received after the battle ofPhilippi, but he had ceased 
to be of any political importance. It was agreed that Antony 
should carry on the war against the Parthians, and that Octavian 
should subdue Pompey, whom Antony readily sacrificed. The 
Consuls were to be selected alternately from the friends of each. 
To cement the alliance, Antony was to marry Octavia, the sister of 
Octavian and widow of C. Marcellus, one of the noblest women of 
her age. The two Triumvirs then repaired to Rome to celebrate 
the marriage. These events took place toward the end of b.c. 40. 

Discontent, however, prevailed at Rome. Sextus Pompey, who 
had been excluded from the peace, still continued master of the 
sea, and intercepted the ships which supplied the city with corn. 
The people were in want of bread, and became so exasperated that 
Octavian and Antony found it necessary to enter into negotiations 
with Pompey. An interview took place between the chiefs at 



B.C. 38-37. WAR WITH SEXTUS POMPEY. 265 

Cape Misenum. It was agreed that Pompey should receive Sicily, 
Sardinia, Corsica, and Achaia, and that he should send to Rome an 
immediate supply of corn. The chiefs then feasted one another, 
and Pompey entertained Octavian and Antony on board his own 
galley. When the banquet was at its height, a Greek named Me- 
nas, or Menodorus, one of Pompey's captains, whispered to him, 
" Shall I cut off the anchors of the ship, and make you master of 
the Roman world ?" To which Pompey made the well-known re- 
ply, "You ought to have done it without asking me." The two 
Triumvirs, on their return to Rome, were received with shouts of 
applause. The civil wars seemed to have come to an end (b.c. 39). 

Antony, with Octavia, returned to the East, where he found that 
his legate Ventidius had gained the most brilliant success over the 
Parthians. This man was a native of Picenum, and originally a 
mule-driver. He was taken prisoner in the Social War, and walked 
in chains in the triumphal procession of Pompeius Strato. He was 
made Tribune of the Plebs by Julius Caesar, and was raised to the 
Consulship in B.C. 43. In the Parthian War he displayed military 
abilities of no ordinary kind. He first defeated Labienus, took him 
prisoner in Cilicia, and put him to death. He then entered Syria, 
and drove Pacorus beyond the Euphrates. In the following year 
(B.C. 38) the Parthians again entered Syria, but Ventidius gained 
a signal victory over them, and Pacorus himself fell in the battle. 

The treaty between Sextus Pompey and the Triumvirs did not 
last long. Antony refused to give up Achaia, and Pompey there- 
fore recommenced his piratical excursions. The price of provisions 
at Rome immediately rose, and Octavian found it necessary to com- 
mence war immediately ; but his fleet was twice defeated by Pom- 
pey, and was at last completely destroyed by a storm (b.c. 38). 
This failure only proved the necessity of making still more extensive 
preparations to carry on the war with success. The power of Oc- 
tavian was insecure as long as Pompey was master of the sea, and 
could deprive Rome of her supplies of corn.^ Nearly two years were 
spent in building a new fleet, and exercising the newly-raised crews 
and rowers. The command of the fleet and the superintendence 
of all the necessary preparations for the war were intrusted to Agrip- 
pa. In order to obtain a perfectly secure and land-locked basin 
for his fleet, and thus secure it against any sudden surprise, he con- 
structed the celebrated Julius Portus on the coast of Campania, 
near Baite, by connecting the inland Lake Avernus,by means of a 
canal, with the Lake Lucrinus, and by strengthening the latter lake 
against the sea by an artificial dike or dam. While he was en- 
gaged in these great works, Antony sailed to Tarentum, in b.c. 37, 
with 300 ships. Maecenas hastened thither from Rome, and sue- 



266 ' HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVII. 

ceeded once move in concluding an amicable arrangement. He 
was accompanied on this occasion by Horace, who has immortalized, 
in a well-known satire, his journey from Rome to Brundusium. 
Octavian and Antony met between Tarentum and Metapontum ; 
the Triumvirate was renewed for another period of five years ; An- 
tony agreed to leave 120 ships to assist in the war against Pompey, 
and Octavian promised to send a land force to the East for the 
campaign against the Parthians. 

Octavian, now relieved of all anxiety on the part of Antony, 
urged on his preparations with redoubled vigor. By the summer 
of B.C. 36 he was ready to commence operations. He had three 
large fleets at his disposal : his own, stationed in the Julian harbor; 
that of Antony, under the command of Statilius Taurus, in the har- 
bor of Tarentum ; and that of Lepidus, off the coast of Africa. His 
plan was for all three fleets to set sail on the same day, and make 
a descent upon three different parts of Sicily ; but a fearful storm 
marred this project. Lepidus alone reached the coast of Sicily, 
and landed at Lilybosum ; Statilius Taurus was able to put back to 
Tarentum ; but Octavian, who was surprised by the storm off" the 
Lucanian promontory of Palinurus, lost a great number of his ships, 
and was obliged to remain in Italy to repair his shattered fleet. 
As soon as the ships had been refitted, Octavian again set sail for 
Sicily. Agrippa defeated Pompey's fleet off" Mylse, destroying 30 
of his ships ; but the decisive battle was fought on the 3d of Sep- 
tember (B.C. 36), off" Naulochus, a sea-port between Mylse and the 
promontory of Pelorus. Agrippa gained a brilliant victory ; most 
of the Pompeian vessels were destroyed or taken. Pompey himself 
fled to Lesbos with a squadron of 17 ships. Octavian did not pur- 
sue him, as Lepidus, who was at the head of a considerable force, 
now claimed Sicily for himself, and an equal share as Triumvir in 
the government of the Roman world ; but Octavian found means to 
seduce his soldiers from their allegiance ; and Lepidus was at last 
obliged to surrender to Octavian, and to throw himself upon his 
mercy. His life was granted, but he was deprived of his Triumvi- 
rate, his army, and his provinces, and was compelled to retire to Ita- 
ly as a private person. He was allowed, however, to retain his prop- 
erty and the dignity of Pontifex Maximus. He lived till B.C. 13. 

In B.C. 35 Pompey crossed over from Lesbos to Asia, with the 
view of seizing that province ; but he was easily crushed by the 
lieutenants of Antony, was tali en prisoner as he attempted to escape 
to Armenia, and was put to death at Miletus. By the death of 
Pompey and the deposition of Lepidus, Antony and Octavian were 
now left without a rival, and Antony's mad love for Cleopatra soon 
made Octavian the undisi)uted master of the Roman world. 



B.C. 37-32. ANTONY IN THE EAST. 267 

After Antony's marriage with Octavia in B.C. 40, he seems for a 
time to have forgotten, or, at least, conquered the faschiations of 
the Egyptian queen. For the next three years lie resided in Ath- 
ens with his wife ; but after his visit to Italy, and the renewal of 
the Triumvirate in B.C. 37, he left Octavia behind at Tarentum, 
and determined to carry out his long-projected campaign against 
the Parthians. As he approached Syria, "that great evil," as 
Plutarch calls it, his passion for Cleopatra, burst forth with more 
vehemence than ever. From this time she appears as his evil gen- 
ius. He summoned her to him at Laodicea, and loaded her with 
honors and favors. He added to her dominions Phoenicia, Ccele- 
Syria, Cyprus, a large part of Cilicia, Palestine, and Arabia, and 
publicly recognized the children she had borne him. Although he 
had collected a large army to invade the Parthian empire, he was 
unable to tear himself away from the enchantress, and did not com- 
mence his march till late in the year. The expedition proved most 
disastrous ; the army suffered from want of provisions, and Antony 
found himself compelled to retreat. He narrowly escaped the fate 
of Crassus, and it v^as with the utmost difficulty that he succeeded 
in reaching the Armenian mountains, after losing the best part of 
his troops. 

Antony returned to Alexandria, and surrendered himself entire- 
ly to Cleopatra. In b.c. 34 he made a short campaign into Arme- 
nia, and succeeded in obtaining possession of Ai-tavasdas, the Ar- 
menian king. He carried him to Alexandria, and, to the great 
scandal of all the Komans, entered the city in triumph, with all the 
pomp and ceremonial of the Roman pageant. He now laid aside 
entirely the character of a Roman citizen, and assumed the state 
and di-ess of an Eastern monarch. Instead of the toga he wore a 
robe of purple, and his head Avas crowned with a diadem. Some- 
times he assumed the character of Osiris, while Cleopatra appeared 
at his side as Isis. He gave the title of kings to Alexander and 
Ptolemy, his sons by Cleopatra. The Egyptian queen already 
dreamed of reigning over the Roman world. 

While Antony was disgusting the Romans and alienating his 
friends and supporters by his senseless follies, Octavian had been 
restoring order to Italy, and, by his wise and energetic administra- 
tion, was slowly repairing the evils of the civil wars. In order to 
give security to the frontiers and employment to the troops, he at- 
tacked the barbarians on the north of Italy and Greece, and sub- 
dued the lapydes, Pannonians, and Dalmatians. He carried on 
these wars in person, and won the affection of the soldiers by shar- 
ing their dangers and hardships. 

The contrast between the two Triumvirs was sufficientlv strik- 



268 



HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVII. 



ing, but Octavian called attention to the follies of Antony. Letters 
passed between them full of mutual recriminations, and both par- 
ties began to prepare for the inevitable struggle. Toward the end 
of B.C. 32 the Senate declared war against Cleopatra, for Antony- 
was regarded as her slave,* The five years of the Triumvirate 
had expired on the last day of this year ; and on the 1st of Janu- 
ary, B.C. 31, Octavian, as Consul of the Republic, proceeded to carry 
on the war against the Egyptian queen. The hostile fleets and ar- 
mies assembled on the western coasts of Greece. Antony's fleet 
was superior both in number and size of the ships, but they were 
clumsy and unmanageable. They were anchored in the Ambra- 

ciotGulf, in the modern 
Bay of Prevesa. (See 
Plan, P.) The army 
was encamped on the 
promontory of Actium 
( Plan, 3 ), which has 
giA'en its name to the 
battle. The fleet of 
Octavian consisted of 
light Liburnian vessels, 
manned by crews which 
had gained experience 
in the wars against Sex- 
tus Ponipey. It was 
V. BayofPrevem. imdcr tlic commaud of 

the able Agrippa, who took up his station at Corcyra, and swept the 
Adriatic Sea. Octavian in person took the command of the land 
forces, which Avere encamped on the coast of Epirus opposite Acti- 
um, on the spot where Nicopolis afterward stood. (Plan, 1.) The 
generals of Antony strongly urged him to fight on land ; but the 
desertions among his troops were numerous; Cleopatra became 
alarmed for her safety ; and it was therefore resolved to sacrifice the 
army, and retire with the fleet to Egypt. But Agrippa was on the 
watch, and Antony had no sooner sailed outside the strait than he 
was compelled to fight. The battle was still undecided and equally 
favorable to both parties, when Cleopatra, whose vessels were at an- 
chor in the rear, taking advantage of a favorable breeze which sprang 
up, sailed through the midst of the combatants with her squadron 
of GO ships, and made for the coast of Peloponnesus. When An- 
tony saw her flight, he hastily followed her, forgetting every thing 
else, and shamefully deserting those who were fighting and dying 
in his cause. The remainder of the fleet was destroyed before. 
* Antony retaliated by sending Octavia a liill of divorce. 




rian of Actium. 



1. Nicopolis. 

2. C. La Scara. 



3. Prom. Actium. 
5. Temple of Apollo 



B.C. 30, DEATH OF ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 269 

night-time. The army, after a few days' hesitation, surrendered, 
and Oetavian pardoned all the officers who sued for his favor. 
The battle of Actium was fought on the 2d of September, b.c. 31, 
from which day the reign of Oetavian is to be dated. 

Oetavian did not follow Antony to Alexandria for nearly twelve 
months after the battle of Actium. He sent Agrippa to Italy with 
his veteran troops, and himself passed the winter at Samos ; but he 
could not satisfy the demands of the soldiers, who broke out into 
open mutiny. Oetavian hastened to Brundusium, and with diffi- 
culty raised a sufficient sum of money to calm their discontent. 

This respite was of no service to Antony and Cleopatra. They 
knew that resistance was hopeless, and therefore sent embassadors 
to Oetavian to solicit his favor. To Antony no answer was given, 
but to Cleopatra hopes were held out if she would betray her lover. 
She began to flatter herself that her charms, which had fascinated 
both Ciesar and Antony, might conquer Oetavian, who was younger 
than either. Oetavian at length appeared before Pelusium, which 
surrendered to him without resistance. He then marched upon 
Alexandria. Antony, encouraged by some slight success in an ac- 
tion with the cavalry, prepared to resist Oetavian both by sea and 
land ; but as soon as the Egyptian ships approached those of Oeta- 
vian, the crews saluted them with their oars and passed over to 
their side. Antony's cavalry also deserted him, his infantry was 
easily repulsed, and he fled to Alexandria, crying out that he was 
betrayed by Cleopatra. 

The queen had shut herself up in a mausoleum which she had 
built to receive her body after death, and where she had collected 
her most valuable treasures. Hearing of Antony's defeat, she sent 
persons to inform him that she was dead. He fell into the snare ; 
they had promised not to survive one another, and Antony stabbed 
himself. He was drawn up into the mausoleum, and died in her 
arms. She was apprehended by tlie officers of Oetavian, and a few 
days afterward had an interview with the conqueror. Her charms, 
however, failed in softening the colder heart of Oetavian. He only 
"bade her be of good cheer and fear no violence." Soon after- 
ward she learned that she was to be sent to Rome in three days' 
time. This news decided her. On the following day she was 
found lying dead on a golden couch in royal attire, with her two 
women lifeless at her feet. The manner of her death was un- 
known. It was generally believed that she had died by the bite 
of an asp, which a peasant had brought to her in a basket full of 
figs. She was 39 years of age at the time of her death. Egypt 
was made a Roman province. Oetavian did not return to Rome 
till iJ.c. 29, when he celebrated a threefold triumph over the Pan- 



270 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVII. 

nonians, Dalmatians, and Egypt. The Temple of Janus was closed 
for the third time in Roman history. The exhausted Roman world, 
longing for repose, gladly acquiesced in the sole rule of Octavian. 
The Senate conferred upon him numerous honors and distinctions, 
with the title of Imperator for life. 

Thus ended the Roman Republic, an end to which it had been 
tending for the last hundred years. The corruption and demoral- 
ization of all classes had rendered a Republic almost an impossi- 
bility ; and the civil dissensions of the state had again and again 
invested one or more persons with despotic authority. The means 
which Augustus employed to strengthen and maintain his power 
belong to a history of the Empire. He proceeded with the caution 
which was his greatest characteristic. He refused the names of 
ijffi. King and Dictator, and was contented with the simple appellation 
of Princeps, which had always been given to one of the most dis- 
tinguished members of the Senate. He received, however, in b.c. 
27, the novel title of xiugustus, that is, *' the sacred," or " the ven- 
erable, " which was afterward assumed by all the Roman emperors 
as a surname. As Imperator he had the command of the Roman 
armies; and the tribunitian and proconsular powers which the 
Senate conferred upon him made him absolute master of the state. 
He made a new division of the provinces, allowing the Senate to ap- 
point the governors of those which were quiet and long-settled, like 
Sicily, Achaia, and Asia, but retaining for himself such as required 
the presence of an army, v/hich were governed by means of his Le- 
gati. On the death of Lepidus in b.c. 13, he succeeded him as 
Pontifex Maximus, and thus became the head of the Roman re- 
ligion. While he thus united in his own person all the great offices 
of state, he still allowed the Consuls, Prsetors, and other magistrates 
of the Republic to be annually elected. "In a few words, the 
system of Imperial government, as it Avas instituted by Octavian, 
and maintained by those princes who understood their own interest 
and that of the people, may be defined as an absolute government, 
disguised by the form of a commonwealth. The masters of the 
Roman world surrounded their throne with darkness, concealed 
their irresistible strength, and humbly professed themselves the ac- 
countable ministers of the Senate, whose supreme decrees they dic- 
tated and obeyed."* 

* Gibbon. 




Horace. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, FROM THE 
EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OP AUGUSTUS. 

For many centuries after the foundation of the city the Romans 
can hardly be said to have had any literature at all. There may 
have existed, at an early period, some songs or ballads, recounting;, 
in rude strains,* the exploits of the heroes of Roman story, but all 
trace of these has disappeared. It was not till the conquest of the 
Greek cities in Southern Italy, shortly before the First Punic War, 
that we can date the commencement of the Roman literature. It 
began with the Drama. Dramatic exhibitions wei-e first introduced 
at Rome from Etruria in B.C. 3G3, on the occasion of a severe pest- 
ilence, in order to avert the anger of the gods. But these exhibi- 
tions were only pantomimic scenes to the music of the flute, with- 
out any song or dialogue. It was not till b.c. 240 that a drama 
with a regular plot was performed at Rome. Its author was M. 
Livius Andronicus, a native of Magna Grcecia, who was taken 
prisoner at the capture of Tarentum, and carried to Rome, where 
he became the slave of M. Livius Salinator. He was afterward set 
free, and, according to Roman practice, took the gentilic name of 
his master. He acquired at Rome a perfect knowledge of the Lat- 
in language, and wrote both tragedies and comedies, which were 
borrowed, or, rather, translated from the Greek. He also wrote 
an Odyssey in the Saturnian metre, and some h^mns. He may be 

* Thes^lwere probably composed in tbe Saturnian metre, the oldest species of 
versification among the Romans, in which much greater license was allowed in 
the laws of quantity than in the metres which were borrowed from the Greek;<. 



B.C. 235-225. ROMAN LITERATURE. 273 

regarded as the first Roman poet. His works were read in schools 
in the time of Horace. 

Cn. N^vius, the second Roman poet, was a Campanian by birth. 
He served in the First Punic War, and, like Livius, wrote dramas 
borrowed from the Greek. His first play was performed in b.c. 235. 
He was attached to the Plebeian party ; and, with the license of the 
old Attic comedy, he made the stage a vehicle for assailing the ar- 
istocracy. In consequence of his attacks upon the Metelli he was 
thrown into prison. He obtained his release through the Tribunes, 
but was soon compelled to expiate a new offense by exile. He re- 
tired to Utica, where he died about b.c. 202. In his exile he wrote, 
in the Saturnian meti-e, an epic poem on the First Punic War, in 
which he introduced the celebrated legends connected with the 
foundation of Rome. This poem was extensively copied both by 
Ennius and Virgil. 

Q. Ennius, however, may be regarded as the real founder of Ro- 
man literature. Like Livius, he was a native of Magna Grsecia. 
He was born at Rudiae, in Calabria, b.c. 239. Cato found him in 
Sardinia in b.c. 204, and brought him in his train to Rome. He 
dwelt in a humble house on the Aventine, and maintained himself 
by acting as preceptor to the youths of the Roman nobles. He 
lived on terms of the closest intimacy with the elder Scipio Afri- 
canus. He died b.c. 169, at the age of 70. He was buried in the 
sepulchre of the Scipios, and his bust was allowed a place among 
the effigies of that noble house. His most important work was an 
epic poem, entitled the "Annals of Rome," in 18 books, written in 
dactylic hexameters, which, through his example, supplanted the 
old Saturnian metre. This poem commenced with the loves of 
Mars and Rhea, and came down to the age of Ennius. Virgil bor- 
rowed largely from it; and, down to his time, it was regarded as 
the great epic poem of the Latin language. He also wrote numer- 
ous tragedies, a few comedies, and several other works, such as 
Satirce, composed in a great variety of metres, from which circum- 
stance they probably received their name. 

The comic drama of Rome, though it continued to be more or 
less a translation or an imitation of the Greek, was cultivated with 
distinguished success by two writers of genius, several of whose 
plays are still extant. 

T. Maccius Plautus was a native of Sarsina, a small village in 
Umbria, and was born about b.c. 254. He probably came to Rome 
at an early age, and was first employed in the service of the actors. 
With the money he had saved in this inferior station he left Rome, 
and set up in business ; but his speculations failed : he returned to 
Rome, and his necessities obliged him to enter tlie service of a 



274 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVIII. 

baker, who employed liim in turning a hand-mill. While in this 
degrading occupation he wrote three plays, the sale of which to the 
managers of the public games enabled him to quit his drudgery, 
and begin his literary career. He was then about 30 years of age 
(B.C. 224), and continued to write for the stage for about 40 years. 
He died in b.c. 184, when he Avas 70 years of age. The comedies 
of Plautus enjoyed unrivaled popularity among the Romans, and 
continued to be represented down to the time of Diocletian. 
Though they were founded upon Greek models, the characters in 
them act, speak, and joke like genuine Romans, and the poet 
thereby secured the sympathy of his audience more completely 
than Terence. It was not only with the common people that Plau- 
tus was a favorite ; educated Romans read and admired his works 
down to the latest times. Cicero places his wit on a level with 
that of the old Attic comedy ; and St. Jerome used to console him- 
self with the perusal of the poet, after spending many nights in 
tears on account of his past sins. The favorable impression which 
the ancients entertained of the merits of Plautus has been confirmed 
by the judgment of modern critics, and by the fact that several of 
his plays have been imitated by many of the best modern poets. 
Twenty of his comedies are extant. 

P.Terentius Afer, usually called Terence, was born at Car- 
thage, B.C. 195. By birth or purchase he became the slave of P. 
Terentius, a Roman senator, who afforded him the best education 
of the age, and finally gave him his freedom. The Andria^ which- 
was the first play of Terence acted (b.c. 166), was the means of in- 
troducing him to the most refined and intellectual circles of Rome. 
His chief patrons were L^elius and the younger Scipio, both of whom 
treated him as an equal, and are said even to have assisted him in 
the composition of his plays. He died in the 36th year of his age, 
in B.C. 159. Six comedies are all that remain to us. The ancient 
critics are unanimous in ascribing to Terence immaculate purity 
and elegance of language. Although a foreigner and a freedraan, 
he divides with Cicero and Cffisar the palm of pure Latinity. 

There were two other comic poets, whose works are lost, but who 
enjoyed a great reputation among the Romans. Q. C^cilius was 
a native of Milan, and, like Terence, came to Rome as a slave. He 
was the immediate predecessor of Terence, and died b.c. 168, two 
years before the representation of the Andna. L. Afranius flour- 
ished B.C. 100, and wrote comedies describing Roman scenes and 
manners, called Comccdice Togatce, to distinguish them from those 
depicting Grecian life, which were termed Paliiata, from pallium, 
the national dress of the Greeks. 

There were two tragic poets contemporary with Terence, who also 



B.C. 220. ROMAN LITERATURE. 276 

enjoyed great celebrity, though their works have likewise perished. 
M. Pacuvius, son of the sister of Ennius, was born about B.C. 220, 
and died in the 90th year of his age. He is praised by the Latin 
writers for the loftiness of his thoughts, the vigor of his language, 
and the extent of his knowledge. Hence we find the epithet doctus 
frequently applied to him. Most of his tragedies were taken from 
the Greek writers ; but some belonged to the class called Prcetex- 
tatce, in which the subjects were taken from Roman story. One of 
these, entitled Paullus, had as its hero L. -3i^milius Paullus, the 
conqueror of Perseus, king of Macedonia. L. Accius, a younger 
contemporary of Pacuvius, was born B.C. 170, and lived to a great 
age. Cicero, when a young man, frequently conversed with him. 
His tragedies, like those of Pacuvius, were chiefly imitations of the 
Greek ; but he also wrote some on Roman subjects, one of which 
was entitled Brutus. 

Though the Roman Drama, properly so called, was derived from 
the Greeks, there were some kinds of dramatic exhibitions which 
were of Italian origin. The first of these were the Atellance Fabulce^ 
or Atellane Plays, which took their name from Atella, a town in 
Campania. They were composed in the Oscan dialect, and were 
at first rude extemporaneous farces, but were afterward divided into 
acts like a regular drama. They seem to have been the origin of 
the Policinello of modern Italy. The Oscan dialect was preserved 
even when they were introduced at Rome. The Mimes were an- 
other species of comedy, of which only the name seems to have 
been derived from the Greek. They were a species of low comedy 
of an indecent description, in which the dialogue was subordinate 
to mimicry and gesture. The Dictator Sulla Avas very fond of 
these performances. The two most distinguished writers of Mimes 
were Dec. Laberius, a knight, and P. Syrus, a freedman, and 
originally a Syrian slave, both of whom were contemporaries of Ju- 
lius Ccesar. At Caesar's triumphal games in October, B.C. 45, P. 
Syrus challenged all his craft to a trial of wit in extemporaneous 
farce, and Csesar offered Laberius 500,000 sesterces to appear on 
the stage. Laberius was 60 years old, and the profession of a mi- 
mus was infamous, but the wish of the Dictator was equivalent to 
a command, and he reluctantly complied. He had, however, re- 
venge in his power, and took it. His prologue awakened compas- 
sion, and perhaps indignation; and during the performance he 
adroitly availed himself of his various characters to point his wit 
at Cajsar. In the person of a beaten Syrian slave he cried out, 
"Marry! Quirites, but we lose our freedom," and all eyes were 
turned upon the Dictator ; and in another mime he uttered the 
pregnant maxim, " Needs must he fear who makes all elss 



276 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap.XXXVIU. 

adread." Csesar, impartially or vindictively, awarded the prize to 
Syr lis. 

The Fescenntne Songs were the origin of the Satire, the only im- 
portant species of literature not derived from the Greeks, and alto- 
gether peculiar to Italy. These Fescennine Songs were rude dia- 
logues, in which the country people assailed and ridiculed one 
another in extempore verses, and which were introduced as an 
amusement in various festivals. They were formed into the Sat- 
ire* by C. LuciLius, who wrote in hexameter verse, and attacked 
the follies and vices both of distinguished persons and of man- 
kind in general. He was born b.c. 148, at Suessa Aurunca, and 
died at Naples in b.c. 103. He lived upon terms of intimacy with 
the younger Scipio and Lrelius, and was the maternal ancestor of 
Pompey the Great. Lucilius continued to be admired in the Au- 
gustan age ; and Horace, while he censures the harsh versification 
and the slovenly haste with which Lucilius threw off his composi- 
tions, acknowledges with admiration the fierceness and boldness of 
his attacks upon the vices and follies of his contemporaries. 

Between Lucilius and the poets of the Augustan age lived Lu- 
cretius and Catullus, two of the greatest — perhaps the greatest — of 
all the Roman poets. 

T.LucKETiDS Carus was born b.c. 95, and died about b.c. 51. 
He is said to have been driven mad by a love-potion, and to have 
perished by his own hand. The work which has immortalized his 
name is a philosophical didactic poem, in heroic hexameters, enti- 
tled De Rej-um Natura, divided into six books, and addressed to C. 
Memmius Gemellus, who was prjetor in b.c. 58. Its object is to 
state clearly the leading principles of the Epicurean philosophy in 
such a form as might render the study attractive to his countrymen. 
He attempts to show that there is nothing in the history or actual 
condition of the world which does not admit of explanation with- 
out having recourse to the active interposition of divine beings. 
The work has been admitted by all modern critics to be the great- 
est of didactic poems. The most abstruse speculations are clearly 
explained in majestic verse, while the subject, which in itself is 
dry and dull, is enlivened by digressions of matchless power and 
beauty. 

Valerius Catullus was born at Verona or in its immediate 
vicinity, B.C. 87. He inherited considerable property from his fa- 
ther, who was the friend of Julius Casar ; but he squandered a 
great part of it by indulging freely in the pleasui-es of the metropo- 
lis. In order to better his fortunes, he went to Bithynia in the 

* The name signifies a mixture or medley. Hence a lex per saturam lata is a 
law which contained several distinct regulation-? at once. 



B.C. 87-19. ROMAN LITERATURE. 277 

train of the Proetor Memmius, but it appears that the speculation 
was attended with little success. It Avas probably during this ex- 
pedition that his brother died in the Troad, a loss which he de- 
plores in the affecting elegy to Hortalus. On his return he con- 
tinued to reside at Rome, or at his country seats on the promonto- 
ry of Sirmio and at Tibur. He died about b.c. 47. His poems 
are on a variety of topics, and composed in different styles and me- 
tres. Some are lyrical, others elegies, others epigrams ; while the 
Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis is an heroic poem. Catullus adorned 
all he touched, and his shorter poems are characterized by original 
invention and felicity of expression. His Atys is one of the most 
remarkable poems in the whole range of Latin literature, distin- 
guished by wild passion and the noblest diction. 

Among the poets of the Augustan age Virgil and Horace stand 
forth pre-eminent. 

P.ViRGiLius (more properly Vergilius) Maro was bom b.c. 70, 
at Andes, a small village near Mantua, in Cisalpine Gaul. His 
father left him a small estate, which he cultivated. After the bat- 
tle of Philippi (B.C. 42) his property was among the lands assigned 
by Octavian to the soldiers. Through the advice of Asinius Pol- 
lio, who was then governor of Cisalpine Gaul, and was himself a 
poet, Virgil applied to Octavian at Rome for the restitution of his 
land, and obtained his request. The first Eclogue commemorates 
his gratitude. Virgil lived on intimate terms with Macenas, whom 
he accompanied in the journey from Rome to Brundusium, which 
forms the subject of one of the Satires of Horace. His most fin- 
ished work, the Georgics, was undertaken at the suggestion of Mas- 
cenas.* The poem was completed after the battle of Actium, B.C. 
31, while Octavian was in the East.f The yEneid was the occupa- 
tion of his latter years. His health was always feeble, and he died 
at Brundusium in b.c. 19, in his 51st year. His remains were 
transferred to Naples, which had been his favorite residence, and 
placed on the road from Naples to Puteoli {PozzuoW), where a mon- 
ument is still shown, supposed to be the tomb of the poet. It is said 
that in his last illness he wished to burn the ^neid, to which he 
had not given the finishing touches, but his friends would not allow 
him. He was an amiable, good-tempered man, free from the mean 
passions of envy and jealousy. His fame, which was established 
in his lifetime, was cherished after his death as an inheritance in 
which every Roman had a share ; and his works became school- 
books even before the death of Augustus, and continued such for 
centuries after. He was also the great poet of the ]\Iiddle Ages. 
To him Dante paid the homage of his superior genius, and owned 
• Georg.^ iii., 41. t C'omp. Georg., iv., 560, and ii., 171. 



278 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVIII. 

him for his master and model. The ten short poems called Bu" 
colics, or Eclogues, were the earliest Avorks of Virgil, and probably 
all written between B.C. 41 and b.c. 37. They have all a Bucolic 
form and coloring, but some of them have nothing more. Their 
merit consists in their versification, and in many natural and sim- 
ple touches. The Georgics is an "Agricultural Poem" in four 
books. Virgil treats of the cultivation of the soil in the first book, 
of fruit-trees in the second, of horses and other cattle in the third, 
and of bees in the fourth. This poem shows a great improvement 
both in his taste and in his versification. Neither in the Georgics 
nor elsewhere has he the merit of striking originality ; his chief 
excellence consists in the skillful handling of borrowed materials. 
The yEneid, or adventures of ^neas after the fall of Troy, is an 
epic formed on the model of the Homeric poems. It was founded 
upon an old Roman tradition that JEneas and his Trojans settled 
in Italy, and were the founders of the Roman name. In the first 
six books the adventures of Ulysses in the Odyssey are the model, 
and these books contain more variety of incident and situation than 
those which follow. The last six books, the history of the struggles 
of ^neas in Italy, are based on the plan of the battles of the Iliad. 
Latinus, the king of the Latini, offers in marriage to the Trojan 
hero his daughter Lavinia, who had been betrothed to Turnus, the 
warlike king of the Rutuli. The contest is ended by the death of 
Turnus, who falls by the hand of ^neas. The fortunes of JEneas 
and his final settlement in Italy are the subjects of the ^neid, 
but the glories of Rome and the Julian house, to which Augustus 
belonged, are indirectly the poet's theme. In the first book the 
foundation of Alba Longa is promised by Jupiter to Venus, and the 
transfer of empire from Alba to Rome ; , from the line of ^neas 
will descend the "Trojan Ceesar," whose empire will only be lim- 
ited by the ocean, and his glory by the heavens. The ultimate tri- 
umphs of Rome are predicted. 

Q. HoRATius Fl Accus, usually called Horace, was born at Ve- 
nusia, in Apulia, b.c. 65. His father was a freedraan. He had 
received his manumission before the birth of the poet, who was of 
ingenuous birth, but who did not altogether escape the taunt which 
adhered to persons even of remote servile origin. His father's oc- 
cupation was that of a collector (coacto?-^ of taxes. With the prof- 
its of his office he had purchased a small farm in the neighborhood 
of Venusia. Though by no means rich, he declined to send the 
young Horace to the common school, kept in Venusia by one Fla- 
vius, to which the children of the rural aristocracy resorted. Prob- 
ably about his twelfth year his father carried him to Rome to re- 
ceive the usual education of a knight's or senator's son. He fre- 



B.C. 39-87. ROMAN LITERATURE. 279 

quented the best schools in the capital. One of these was kept by 
Orbilius, a retired military man, whose flogging propensities have 
been immortalized by his pupil. The names of his other teachers 
are not recorded by the poet. He was instructed in the Greek 
and Latin languages : the poets were the usual school-books — Ho- 
mer in the Greek, and the old tragic writer, Livius Andronieus, in 
the Latin. In his eighteenth year Horace proceeded to Athens, 
in order to continue his studies at that seat of learning. When 
Brutus came to Athens after the death of Caesar, Horace joined 
his army, and received at once the rank of a military tribune and 
the command of a legion. He was present at the battle of Philip- 
pi, and shared in the flight of the republican army. In one of his 
poems he playfully alludes to his flight, and throwing away his 
shield. He now resolved to devote himself to more peaceful pur- 
suits ; and, having obtained his pardon, he ventured at once to re- 
turn to Rome. He had lost all his hopes in life ; his paternal es- 
tate had been swept away in the general forfeiture ; but he was 
enabled to obtain sufficient money to purchase a clerkship in the 
Quifistor's office, and on the profits of that place he managed, with 
the utmost frugality, to live. Meantime some of his poems at- 
tracted the notice of Varius and Virgil, who introduced him to 
Maecenas (b.c. 39). Horace soon became the friend of Maecenas, 
and this friendship quickly ripened into intimacy. In a year or two 
after the commencement of their friendship (b.c. 37) Horace ac- 
companied his patron on the journey to Brundusium already al- 
luded to. About the year b.c. 34 Msecenas bestowed upon the poet 
a Sabine farm, sufficient to maintain him in ease, comfort, and 
even in content, during the rest of his life. The situation of this 
farm was in the valley of Ustica, within view of the mountain Lu- 
cretilis, and near the Digentia, about 15 miles from Tibur ( J^^,•o/^■). 
A site exactly answering to the villa of Horace, and on which were 
found ruins of buildings, has been discovered in modern times. 
Besides this estate, his admiration of the beautiful scenery in the 
neighborhood of Tibur inclined him either to hire or to purchase a 
small cottage in that romantic town ; and all the later years of his 
life were passed between the metropolis and these two country res- 
idences. He died, b.c, 8, in his 57th year. He was buried on 
the slope of the Esquiline Hill, close to his friend and patron Mae- 
cenas, who had died before him in the same year. Horace has 
described his own person. He was of short stature, with dark eyes 
and dark hair, but early tinged with gray. In his youth he was 
tolerably robust, but suffered fron\ a complaint in his eyes. In 
moi'e advanced life he grew fat, and Augustus jested about his pro- 
tuberant belly. His health was not always good, and he seems to 



280 HISTOKY OF ROxME. CHAP.XXXVm. 

have inclined to be a valetudinarian. In dress he was rather care- 
less. His habits, even after he became richer, were generally fru- 
gal and abstemious ; though on occasions, both in youth and ma- 
turer age, he seems to have indulged in conviviality. He liked 
choice wine, and in the society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the 
luxuries of his time. He was never married. The Odea of Hor- 
ace want the higher inspirations of lyric verse. His amatory verses 
are exquisitely graceful, but they have no strong ardor, no deep ten- 
derness, nor even much light and joyous gayety ; but as works of 
refined art, of the most skillful felicities of language and of meas- 
ure, of translucent expression, and of agreeable images embodied 
in words which imprint themselves indelibly on the memory, they 
are unrivaled. In tbe Satit-es of Horace there is none of the lofty- 
moral indignation, the fierce vehemence of invective, which char- 
acterized the later satirists. It is the folly rather than the wicked- 
ness of vice which he touches with such playful skill. In the 
Epodes there is bitterness provoked, it should seem, by some per- 
sonal hatred or sense of injury ; but the Epistles are the most per- 
fect of the Horatian poetry, the poetry of manners and society, the 
beauty of which consists in its common sense and practical wisdom. 
The Epistles of Horace are, with the Poem of Lucretius, the Geor- 
gies of Virgil, and, perhaps, the Satires of Juvenal, the most per- 
fect and the most original form of Roman verse. The Art of Poetry 
was probably intended to dissuade one of the younger Pisos from 
devoting himself to poetry, for which he had little genius, or, afe 
least, to suggest the difficulties of attaining to perfection. 

Three celebrated Elegiac poets — Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid 
— also belong to the Augustan age. 

Albius Tibullus was of equestrian family, and possessed an 
hereditary estate between Tibur and Prasneste. His great patron 
was Messala, whom he accompanied in B.C. 31 into Aquitania, 
whither Messala had been sent by Augustus to suppress a formida- 
able insurrection which had broken out in this province. In the 
following year (b.c. 30) Messala, having pacified Gaul, was sent into 
the East. Tibullus set out in his company, but was taken ill, and 
obliged to remain in Corcyra, from whence he returned to Rome. 
So ceased the active life of Tibullus. He died at an early age soon 
after Virgil. The poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibullus as 
a gentle and singularly amiable man. To Horace especially he 
was an object of warm attachment. His Elegies, which are exqui- 
site small poems, celebrate the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses. 

Skxtus Aurelius Pkopertius was a native of Umbria, and was 
born about b.c. 51. He was deprived of his paternal estate by an 
agrarian division, probably that in b.c. 3G, after the Sicilian War. 



B.C.30-A.D. 18. KOMAN LITERATURE. 281 

He began to write poetry at a very early age, and the merit of his 
productions soon attracted the attention and patronage of Maece- 
nas. The year of his death is altogether unknown. As an elegiac 
poet a high rank must be awarded to Propertius, and among the 
ancients it was a disputed point whether the preference should be 
given to him or to Tibullus. To the modern reader, however, the 
elegies of Propertius are not nearly so attractive as those of Tibul- 
lus. This arises partly from their obscurity, but in a great meas- 
ure, also, from a certain want (tfhiature in them. The fault of 
Propertius was too pedantic an imitation of the Greeks. His whole 
ambition was to become the Roman Callimachus, whom he made 
his model. He abounds with obscure Greek myths, as well as 
Greek forms of expression, and the same pedantry infects even his 
versification. 

P. OviDius Naso, usually called Ovid, was boi'u at Sulmo, in the 
country of the Peligni, on tlie 20th of March, B.C. 43. He was 
descended from an ancient equestrian family, and was destined to 
be a pleader ; but the bent of his genius showed itself very early. 
The hours which should have been spent in the study of jurispru- 
dence were employed in cultivating his poetical talent. It is a 
disputed point whether he ever actually practiced as an advocate 
after his return to Rome. The picture Ovid himself draws of his 
weak constitution and indolent temper prevents us from thinking 
that he ever followed his profession with perseverance, if, indeed, 
at all. He became, however, one of the Triumviri Capitales ; and 
he was subsequently made one of the Centumviri, or judges who 
tried testamentary, and even criminal causes. Till his 50th year 
he continued to reside at Rome, where he had a house near the 
Capitol, occasionally taking a trip to his Pelignian fai'm. He not 
only enjoyed the friendship of a large circle of distinguished men, 
but the regard and favor of Augustus and the imperial family ; not- 
withstanding, in A.D. 9, he Avas suddenly commanded by an imperial 
edict to transport himself to Tomi, a town on the Euxine, near the 
mouths of the Danube, on the very border of the empire. He un- 
derwent no trial, and the sole reason for his banishment stated in 
the edict Avas his having published his poem on the Art of Love 
{Ars Amatori(i). The real cause of his banishment is unknown, 
for the publication of tlie Art of Love was certainly a mere pretext. 
Ovid draws an atFecting picture of the miseries to which he was ex- 
posed in his place of exile. He complains of the inhospitable soil, 
of the severity of the climate, and of the perils to which he was ex- 
posed, when the barbarians plundered the surrounding country, and 
insulted the very walls of Tomi. In the midst of all liis misfor- 
tunes he sought some relief in the exercise of his poetical talents. 



282 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVIII. 

He died at Tomi in the 60th year of his age, a.d. 18. Besides his 
amatory poems, Ovid wrote the Metamorphoses in 15 books, which 
consist of such legends or fables as involved a transformation, from 
the Creation to the time of Julius Caesar, the last being that em- 
peror's change into a star; the Fasti in 12 books, of Avhich only 
the first six are extant, a sort of poetical Roman calendar, with its 
appropriate festivals and mythology ; and the Elegies, written dur- 
ing his banishment. Ovid undoubtedly possessed a great poetical 
genius, which makes it the morij||E) be regretted that it was not al- 
ways under the control of a sound judgment. He exhibits great 
vigor of fancy and warmth of coloring, but he was the first to de- 
part from that pure and correct taste which characterizes the Greek 
poets and their earlier Latin imitators. 

We now turn to the history of prose literature among the Ro- 
mans. The earliest prose works were Annals, containing a meagre 
account of the principal events in Roman history, arranged under 
their respective years. The earliest Annalists who obtained repu- 
tation were Q. Fabius Pictor and L. Cmcius Alimentus, both of 
whom served in the Second Punic War, and drew up an account 
of it, but they wrote in the Greek language. The first prose writer 
in the Latin language, of whom any considerable fragments have 
been preserved, is the celebrated Censor, M. Porcius Cato, who 
died B.C. 149, and of wliose life an account has been already given. 
He wrote an important historical work entitled Origines. The first 
book contained the history of the Roman kings ; the second and 
third treated of the origin of the Italian towns, and from these two 
books the whole work derived its title ; the fourth book treated of 
the First Punic War, the fifth book of the Second Punic War, and 
the sixth and seventh continued the narrative to the year of Cato's 
death. There is still extant a work on agriculture (Z>e Re Rus- 
tica) bearing the name of Cato, which is probably substantially his, 
though it is certainly not exactly in the form in which it proceeded 
from his pen. There were many other annalists, of whom we 
know little more than the names, and whose works were used by 
Livy in compiling his Roman history. 

Oratory was always cultivated by the Romans as one of the chief 
avenues to political distinction. Cicero, in his work entitled Bru- 
tus, has given a long list of distinguished Orators whose speeches 
he had read^ but he himself surpassed all his predecessors and 
contemporaries. In his works the Latin language appears in the 
highest perfection. Besides his numerous orations he also wrote 
several treatises on Rhetoric, of which the most perfect is a system- 
atic treatise on the art of Oratory (Z)e Oratore'), in three books. 



B.C. 160-30. ROMAN LITERATURE. 283 

His works on Philosophy were almost the first specimens of this 
kind of literature ever presented to the Romans in their own lan- 
guage. He does not aim at any original investigation or research. 
His object was to present, in a familiar and attractive form, the re- 
sults at which the Greek philosophers had arrived, not to expound 
any new theories. His Epistles, of which more than eight hundred 
have come down to us, are among the most valuable remains of 
antiquity. Cicero, during the most important period of his life, 
maintained a close correspondence with Atticus, and with a wide 
circle of political friends and connections. These letters supply 
the most ample materials for a history of the Roman Republic dur- 
ing its last struggles, and afford a clear insight into the personal 
dispositions and motives of its chief leaders. 

The most learned Roman nnder the Republic was M. Tekentius 
Varro, a contemporary and friend of Cicero. He served as Pom- 
pey's lieutenant in Spain in the Civil Wars, but was pardoned by 
Csesar after the battle of Pharsalia, and was employed by him in 
superintending the collection and arrangement of the great library 
designed for public use. Upon the formation of the second Tri- 
umvirate, Varro's name appeared upon the list of the proscribed; 
but he succeeded in making his escape, and, after having remained 
for some time in concealment, he obtained the pi-otection of Octa- 
vian. His death took place B.C. 28, when he was in his 89th year. 
Not only was Varro the most learned of Roman scholars, but he 
was likewise the most voluminous of Roman authors. We have his 
own authority for the assertion that he had composed no less than 
490 books, but of these only two have come down to us, and one 
of them in a mutilated form : I. Be Re Rnstica, a Avork on Agricul- 
ture, in three books, written when the author was 80 years old ; 2. 
De Lincjua Latina, a grammatical treatise which extended to 24 
books, but six only have been preserved, and these are in a mutila- 
ted condition. The remains of this treatise are particularly valua- 
ble. They have preserved many terms and forms which would 
otherwise have been altogether lost, and much curious information 
connected with the ancient usages, both civil and religious, of the 
Romans. 

C. Julius C^sar, the great Dictator, was also distinguished as 
an author, and wrote several works, of which the Commentaries 
alone have come down to us. They relate the history of the first 
seven years of the Gallic War in seven books, and the history of 
the Civil War down to the commencement of the Alexandrine in 
three books. Neither of these Avorks completes the history of the 
Gallic and Civil Wars. The history of the former was completed 
in an 8th book, which is usually ascribed to Hirtius. The history 



284 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXVIII. 

of the Alexandrine, African, and Spanisli Wars was written in three 
separate books, which are also ascribed to Hirtius, but their author- 
ship is uncertain. The purity of Caesar's Latin and the clearness 
of his style have deservedly obtained the highest praise. 

C. Sallustius Crispus, a contemporary of Caesar, and one of his 
supporters, was also distinguished as a historian. He was born 
B.C. 86 at Amiternum, in the country of the Sabines, and died in 
B.C. 34:. After the African War (b.c. 46) he was left by Ciesar as 
governor of Numidia, where he acquired great riches by his oppres- 
sion of the people. Two of his works have come down to us, the 
Catilina, the history of the suppression of Catiline's conspiracy, and 
the Jugurtha, the history of the war against Jugurtha. Sallust made 
Thucydides his model, and took great pains with his style. 

Cornelius Nepos, the contemporary and friend of Cicero and 
Atticus, was the author of numerous works, all of which are lost, 
with the exception of the well-known Lives of Distinguished Com- 
manders ( ViUe Excellent'mni Imperatoi-ian). But even these Lives, 
with the exception of that of Atticus, are probably an abridgment 
of the original work of Nepos, made in the fourth century of the 
Christian era. 

Of the prose writers of the Augustan age the most distinguished 
was the historian Titus Livius, usually called Livy. He was born 
at Fatavium {Padua), b.c. 59. The greater part of his life ap- 
pears to have been spent in Rome, but he returned to his native 
town before his death, which happened at the age of 76, in the 
fourth year of Tiberius, a.d. 17. His literary talents secured the 
patronage and friendship of Augustus ; and his reputation became 
so widely diill'used, that a Spaniard traveled from Cadiz to Rome 
solely for the purjiose of beholding him ; and, having gratified his 
curiosity in this one particular, he immediately returned home. 
Livy's "History of Rome" extended from the foundation of the 
city to the death of Drusus, b.c. 9, and was comprised in 142 books. 
Of these 35 have descended to us. The whole work has been di- 
vided into decades, containing 10 books each. The First decade 
(bks. i.-x.) is entire. It embraces the period from the foundation 
of the city to the year b.c. 294, when the subjugation of the Sam- 
nites may be said to have been completed. The Second decade 
(bks. xi.-xx.) is altogether lost. It included the period from b.c. 
294 to B.C. 219, comprising an account, among other matters, of 
the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the First Punic War. The Third 
decade (bks. xxi.-xxx.) is entire. It embraces the period from 
B.C. 219 to B.C. 201, comprehending the whole of the Second Punic 
War. The Fourth decade (bks. xxxi.-xl.) is entire, and also one 
half of the Fifth (bks. xli.-xlv.). These 15 books continue the 



B.C. 28-A.D. 17. ROMAN LITERATURE. 



285 



history from B.C. 201 to B.C. 167, and develop the progress of the 
Roman arms in Cisalpine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece, and Asia, 
ending with the triumph of ^railius Paullus. Of the remaining 
books nothing is extant except inconsiderable fragments. The style 
of Livy may be pronounced almost faultless. In judging of his 
merits as a historian, we are bound to ascertain, if possible, the end 
which he proposed to himself. No one who reads his work with 
attention can suppose that he ever conceived the project of drawing 
up a critical history of Rome. His aim was to offer to his coun- 
trymen a clear and pleasing narrative, which, while it gratified their 
vanity, should contain no startling improbabilities or gross amplifi- 
cations. To effect this purpose, he studied with care the writings 
of some of his more celebrated predecessors in the same field ; but 
in no case did he ever dream of ascending to the fountain-head, 
and never attempted to test the accuracy of his authorities by ex- 
amining monuments of remote antiquity. 




Maecenas. 




Aureus of Augustus Cwciar. 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 

THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS C^SAK. B.C. 31-A.D. 14. 

Augustus, being now the emperor of Rome, sought to win the 
affections of his people. He lived with republican simplicity in a 
plain house on the Palatine Hill, and educated his family with 
great strictness and frugality. His public conduct was designed 
to conceal his unbounded power. He rejected all unworthy mem- 
bers from the Senate, and limited the number of the Senators to six 
hundred. The Comitia of the Centuries was still allowed to pass 
laws and elect magistrates, but gradually these powers were taken 
away, until, in the reign of Tiberius, they are mentioned no more. 

The emperor's chief counselors in public affairs were his four 
friends, M. Vipsanius Agrippa, C. Cilnius M^cenas, M. Valerius 
Messala, and Asinius Pollio, all persons of excellent talents, and 
devoted to their master. Agrippa aided him greatly in embellish- 
ing the city of Rome with new buildings, and the Pantheon, which 
was built in the Campus Martins, still bears the inscription, M. Vip- 
sanius Agrippa, consul tertium. Augustus was accustomed to say 
that he found Rome a city of brick, and left it a city of marble. 

To secure the peace of the capital, and to extirpate the robbers 
who filled its streets, Augustus divided Rome into fourteen regions, 
and each region into several smaller divisions called Vici: a mag- 
istrate was placed over each Vicus, and all these officers were un- 
der the command of the city preefect. A police force, Vig'des, seven 
hundred in number, was also provided, who succeeded in restoring 
the public peace. Italy, in a similar manner, was divided into re- 
gions, and local magistrates were appointed, who made life and 
property every where secure. 

We must notice briefly the extent and condition of that vast 
empire over which Augustus ruled — too vast, in fact, to be sub- 
jected to the control of a single intellect. Italy, the peculiar prov- 
ince of the emperor, had lost a large part of its free population, 



B.C. 31-A.D. 14. REIGN OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. 287 

whose place was supplied by slaves ; military colonies were numer- 
ous, a kind of settlement which never tended to advance the pros- 
perity of the country; the cities were declining, and many of tliera 
almost abandoned. The north of Italy, however, still retained a 
portion of its former prosperity ; its great droves of swine supplied 
the people of Rome with a large part of their food ; vineyards also 
abounded there, and the wine-vats of upper Italy were said to be 
often larger than houses. Coarse woolen cloths were manufactured 
in Liguria, and a finer avooI was produced near Mutina, But Italy, 
once so fertile, could no longer produce its own corn, for which it 
depended chiefly upon Sicily, Africa, and Egypt. 

The island of Sicily, too, had suffered greatly during the civil 
wars. Its cities were fallen into ruin, and the woods and mount- 
ains were filled with fugitive slaves, who, when captui'ed, were 
taken to Rome and exposed to wild beasts in the amphitheatres. 
A Roman colony was planted by Augustus in the almost deserted 
city of Syracuse. 

The condition of the extensive province of Gaul was more prom- 
ising its savage tribes having begun to adopt the arts of civiliza- 
tion. The Gauls purchased from southern traders such articles as 
they were unable to produce at home, and supplied Italy, in re- 
turn, with coarse wool and cargoes of bacon. Several Roman col- 
onies established in Gaul enjoyed various political privileges, but 
the people in general were oppressed with taxes and burdened with 
debts. The religion of the Druids was discouraged by laws which 
forbade human sacrifices, and, indeed, all rites opposed to the Ro- 
man faith. In Southern Gaul the city of Massilia (Marseilles) 
had imparted civilization to the neighboring tribes : they learned 
to use the Greek characters in writing, while many of the Gallic 
cities invited Greek teachers to open schools in their midst. 

Spain, rich in gold and silver, in fine wool, and a prolific soil, 
traded largely with Rome. The valley of the Baetis, or Guadal- 
quiver, was renowned for its uncommon fertility. Many of the 
Spaniards had already adopted the language and manners of their 
conquerors. Spain was divided into three provinces, Bastica, Lu- 
sitania, and Hispania Tarraconensis. Gades, or Cadiz, was one 
of the richest cities of the empire, and, according to Dion Cassius, 
had received the privilege of Roman citizenship from Julius Ctesar, 
whom its people had aided against Pompey's officers. The tribes 
in the northwest of Spain, however, were savage and unquiet, and 
their language, the Basque, which still exists, shows that they were 
never perfectly conquered by the Romans. 

The northern coast of Africa, opposite to Spain, was held by 
Juba, a native prince, while the Roman province of Africa em- 



288 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXIX. 

braced ancient Carthage, together with a considerable territory 
around it. This province possessed a Lirge trade. Cyrenaica, to 
the eastward, included the island of Crete, and was termed a i^rse- 
torian province. 

Egypt was ruled by a governor, who was always taken from tlie 
equestrian order. Two legions only were stationed in that ])rov- 
ince. Being the centre of the trade between Italy and the Indies, 
Egypt accumulated great v/ealth, and was renowned for its exten- 
sive commerce. It exported large quantities of corn to Italy, and 
also papyrus^ the best writing material then known. The two 
finest kinds of papyrus were named the Augustan and the Livian. 
Alexandria, the sea-port of Egypt, was the second city of the em- 
pire. Its commerce was immense ; and its museum, colleges, li- 
brary, and literary men made it also the centre of Greek literature. 
Alexandria, too, was famous for its superstition and its licentious- 
ness : the festivals and rites of Serapis had long excited the con- 
tempt of the wiser Romans. 

The trade between Alexandria and the Indies was carried on 
through two routes : one was the famous canal which, begun by 
Pharaoh Necho, was completed under the government of the Ptol- 
emies. Leaving the Nile near the southern point of the Delta, the 
canal, after a somewhat circuitous course, joined the Red Sea at 
the town of Arsinoe, near the modern town of Suez. Another 
route was overland from Coptos, on the Nile, across the desert, to 
Berenice and Myos Hormos. Along this road wells were dug or 
reservoirs of water provided, and thus an easy communication was 
kept up with the East. Heavy duties, however, were laid upon all 
goods entering or leaving Alexandria, and its extensive trade af- 
forded a great revenue to the government. 

From Egypt to the ^gean Sea, various provinces were created 
in Syria and Asia Minor. The most extensive of these were the 
two provinces of Syria and Asia, which were governed by lieuten- 
ants of the emperor. Judea retained a nominal independence, un- 
der the government of Herod ; Jerusalem was adorned by Herod 
with magnificent buildings ; and Antioch, Tyre, and several other 
eastern cities were still prosperous and luxurious. They were, how- 
ever, heavily taxed, amf suifered from the tyranny and exactions 
of their Roman rulers. 

Greece, in the age of Augustus, seems to have been a scene of 
desolation. It was divided into two provinces, Macedonia and 
Achaia, both belonging to the jurisdiction of the Senate and the 
people. Greece had suffered greatly during the civil wars, and had 
never recovered its ancient prosperity. The peninsula was partly 
depopulated. Laconia had long lost its importance, and Messenia 



B.C. 31-A.D. 14. REIGN OF AUGUSTUS CJESAR. 289 

and Arcadia were almost deserted. Corinth and Patrse, however, 
were flourishing Roman colonies ; Thebes was a mere village ; 
Athens still retained its literary renown, and was always a favorite 
resort for cultivated Romans ; but its harbor was deserted, its walls 
thrown down, and the energy of its people forever gone. 

Macedonia had suffered equally with Greece, and no trace re- 
mained of its former power. Thus we find that the civilized world, 
at the accession of Augustus, was every where marked by desola- 
tion and decay. 

The Roman empire, at this period, was bounded on the north by 
the Euxine, the Danube, the Rhine, and the British Channel; west- 
ward it reached to the Atlantic ; on the south it was confined by the 
deserts of Africa, and on the east by Assyria and Mesopotamia. 
The Mediterranean Sea was wholly within the empire, and afford- 
ed an easy mode of communication with the different pro\dnces. 

The government which Augustus now established was designed 
to ])reserve the memory of the republic, while the real power re- 
mained with the emperor alone. The people were deprived of all 
their former importance ; the Comitia were only suffered to pass 
upon laws proposed by the Senate, which was now wholly under 
the control of the emperor. Consuls and other magistrates were 
still chosen annually, and Augustus, in the earlier years of his reign, 
was accustomed to solicit votes for his favorite candidates, who, 
however, were always elected ; later he contented himself with fur- 
nishing them with a written recommendation. The Senate met 
twice in every month, instead of three times, as was the former cus- 
tom, except during September and October, when no meetings were 
held. The provinces were governed by proconsuls, several of whom 
were appointed by the Senate and the people ; but all of them were 
carefully observed by the emperor. Rome itself was governed by 
a prsefect, whose duty it was to preserve the public peace. 

In this manner Augustus, by the aid of his proconsuls, held a 
despotic rule over all his dominions. He controlled the Senate, 
too, through his authority as censor, and appointed or deposed its 
members ; and he raised the property qualification of each Senator 
to about $50,000. A large part of the people of the capital were 
maintained by the free distribution of corn ; but Augustus reduced 
the number from 320,000 to 200,000, providing for the poorer citi- 
zens by settling them in new colonies, and his measures seem to 
have produced general contentment. 

He was also sincerely desirous to reform the morals of the nation. 

Several laws were passed encouraging marriage, and in B.C. 18 he 

obliged the Senate to decree that marriage should be imperative 

upon every citizen of suitable age. Celibacy was punished by an 

T 



290 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XXXIX. 

incapacity to receive bequests, and even the childless married man 
was deprived of half his legacy ; these efforts, however, failed, and 
a general license prevailed. As censor, he sought to restrain ex- 
travagance, and limited the sum to be expended upon entertain- 
ments. He insisted that the toga, the national dress, be worn at 
least at the public spectacles ; he endeavored to preserve the dis- 
tinctions of rank by providing each of the three orders with its own 
seats in the circus; and he plainly sought to elevate the aristocracy, 
and to withdraw all political power from the people. It is said, 
however, that he once entertained the design of resigning his au- 
thority, but was prevented from doing so by the advice of his friends, 
who represented to him that the Romans were no longer capable of 
governing themselves. 

The Prastorian guard, which Augustus provided for his own pro- 
tection, consisted often cohorts, each containing 800 or 1000 men, 
both cavalry and foot : of these only three cohorts were kept in the 
city, the others being distributed through the Italian towns. These 
soldiers received double pay, and were commanded by the prcpfectus 
prcetorii: at a later period they became the masters of the empire. 

The whole army, amounting to about 350,000 men, was encamp- 
ed in various portions of his dominions. His fleet, which num- 
bered 500 ships, was stationed chiefly at Misenum and Ravenna. 
His revenues arose from the contributions of the provinces, from 
various taxes, and from the rent of the public domain. An excise 
was imposed upon all goods exposed for sale, and there was also a 
tax upon all bachelors. 

Augustus encouraged commerce and industry, built new roads, 
and provided the capital with an abundance of food. Games and 
public spectacles were exhibited to amuse the people, a free distri- 
bution of corn relieved the indigent, literature was encouraged, the 
arts flourished with new vigor, and the people and the Senate, 
pleased with present tranquillity, bestowed upon Augustus the title 
of the Father of his Country. 

Several conspiracies, however, alarmed the emperor. In B.C. 30, 
Lepidus, a son of the former triumvir, had formed a plot for his de- 
struction, which was detected by Maecenas, and its author put to 
death. Another, in b.c. 22, was also unsuccessful. In a.d. 4, Cinna, 
a grandson of Pompey, was discovered in a similar attempt, and 
was pardoned at the request of Livia; he was afterward even 
raised to the consulship. But so intimidated was Augustus by the 
fear of assassination, that, toward the close of his life, he never 
went to a meeting of the Senate without wearing a breastplate un- 
der his robe. 

The military enterprises of Augustas were in general successful. 



B.C. 31-A.D. U. KEIGN OF AUGUSTUS C^SAK. 291 

He led an army into Spain, and subdued the Cantabri and Astures, 
returning to Rome b.c. 24. While in Spain he founded several 
cities, among others Augusta Emerita (Merida), and Csesar Augus- 
ta (Saragossa). Phraates, king of the Farthians, fearful of the Ro- 
man arms, gave up the Roman standards taken from Crassus and 
Antony, b.c. 20, and this event was celebrated by striking medals 
and by the verses of the Augustan poets. The emperor hung up 
the standards in a temple which he had built at Rome to Mars, the 
Avenger. 

Tiberius and Drusus, the two sons of Livia by her former hus- 
band, were distinguished commanders, and gained many victories 
over the Germans; but, in b.c. 9, Drusus died from a fall from 
his horse. Tiberius then took the command of the army, and gain- 
ed a great victory over the Sigambri. He returned to Rome b.c. 6, 
and triumphed ; was saluted Imperator, and received the tribuni- 
tian power for five years. 

Soon after, indignant at the dissolute conduct of his wife Julia, 
and the honors bestowed upon her sons by Agrippa, he withdrew to 
Rhodes, where he remained for seven years, a discontented exile. 
He returned to Rome in a.d. 2, and, two years after, was adopted 
by Augustus as his son. He next conquered a large part of Ger- 
many, and defeated several large bodies of the Marcomanni in what 
is now the territory of Bohemia. 

But, while he was employed upon this expedition, Arminius, the 
German hero, excited an insurrection of his countrymen against 
the cruel Romans, cut off Varus, their leader, Avith his army, and 
filled Rome with alarm. Germany seemed lost. Augustus, when 
he heard of the disaster, exclaimed, "Varus! Varus! give me 
back my legions !" 

Tiberius, however, together with Germanicus, the brave son of 
Drusus, returned to the defense of the frontier, but did not venture 
to penetrate into the forests beyond the Rhine. 

In his domestic life Augustus was singularly unfortunate. Livia, 
his wife, for whom he entertained a sincere affection, was a person 
of strong intellect and various accomplishments ; but she was de- 
scended from the Claudian family, and inherited all the pride, am- 
bition, and love of political intrigue which marked the descendants 
of Appius Claudius. She was also married to a Claudius, and thus 
her two sons by her first husband, Tiberius and Drusus, were even 
more than herself Claudians. On them all Livia's affections were 
fixed ; to secure their aggrandizement she hesitated at no effort 
and no crime ; and when Drusus died, her son Tiberius, who re- 
sembled his mother in disposition, became the chief object of her 
regard. Her husband and his family were looked upon with jeal- 



292 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



Chap. XXXIX. 



ousy and dislike, and the darkest suspicions were aroused at Rome 
by the death, one by one, of every person who stood between Ti- 
berias and the throne. 

Livia had no child by her second marriage, and the only heir of 
Augustus was Julia, the daughter of his former wife, Scribonia. 
Julia was beautiful, intelligent, and highly educated ; and Augus- 
tus, who was strongly attached to his own family, looked upon his 
daughter with singular affection and pride. He hoped to see her 
grow up pure, wise, and discreet — a new Lucretia, the representa- 
tive of the ideal Roman matron ; and he early accustomed Julia 
to practice moderation in dress, to spend hours at the spinning- 
wheel, and to look upon herself as destined to become the model 
and example of Roman women. 

Julia was first married to her cousin Marcellus, the son of Oc- 
tavia, a young man of excellent character, whom Augustus adopted, 
and probably destined as his successor ; but, in B.C. 23, Marcellus 
died, amid the sincere grief of all the Romans. Marcellus has 
been made immortal by a few touching lines of Virgil. 




Gold coin of Agrippa, with head of Augustus. 

Not long after, Augustus married Julia to his friend Agrippa, 
and they had five children — three sons, Caius, Lucius, and Agrippa 
Postumus, the latter being born after the death of his father, and 
two daughters, Julia and Agrippina. These children were now 
the hope of the people and the emperor, and objects of jealousy and 
dislike to Livia and Tiberius. 

In B.C. 12 Agrippa died. Augustus then prevailed upon Tibe- 
rius to divorce his own wife, to whom he was sincerely attached, in 
order to marry Julia. Their union was an unhappy one, and, after 
living together for about a year, they separated forever. 

The conduct of Julia, in fact, had long been marked by gross 
immoralities, and Augustus alone was unconscious of her unwor- 
thiness. He refused to believe that his daughter, whom he had 
destined to become an example of purity, had so deceived and dis- 
honored him. At length, however, he became convinced of her 
guilt, and banished her (b.c. 2) to the island Pandataria (Santa 
Maria), off" the coast of Campania, where she was treated witli just 



B.C. 31-A.D. 14. REIGN OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. 293 

severity. Her daughter Julia, who had shared in her excesses, 
was also sent into exile. 

Meanwhile Caius and Lucius Caesar both died suddenly. Caius 
was sent to the East in B.C. 1, to improve himself in military af- 
fairs, and there died, a.d. 3, from the effects of a w^ound given him 
by an assassin. Lucius, the younger, having gone on a mission to 
Spain in a.d. 2, fell sick and died at Massilia. About this time 
Tiberius had been recalled from Rhodes and intrusted with the 
chief care of public affairs. It was believed at Rome that Livia 
and her son had removed the two Csesars by poison and assassina- 
tion. 

All happiness must now have fled from the breast of the empe- 
ror. He still, however, attended carefully to the duties of his sta- 
tion. In A.D. 4 he adopted Tiberius, together with Agrippa Pos- 
tumus ; Tiberius was obliged at the same time to adopt German- 
icus, the eldest son of his brother Drusus. In a.d. 7 Augustus 
was induced to banish Agrippa Postumus, who proved unworthy 
of his favor, to the island of Planasia, and this act was ratified by 
a decree of the Senate ; it was thought, however, that Livia was 
again the cause of this unnatural act. In a.d. 8 the poet Ovid 
was banished for some unknown crime. 




Medal of Agrippina, showing the Carpentnm, or chariot, in which the Roman 
ladies were accustomed to ride. 

It was in the year 5 or 7 B.C., for the true date is unknown, 
that Jesus Christ, the Savior of the world, was born at Bethlehem, 
in Judea. 

In A.D. 14, Augustus, aided by Tiberius, took a census— the third 
during his reign. His health, which had always been delicate, now 
rapidly declined. He had long borne with patience the infirmities 
of old age, and he now retired to Nola, where he died, August 19, 
A.D. 14, in the same room where his father had died before him. 



294 



HISTORY OF ROxME. Chap. XXXIX. 



It is said that as he was dying he exclaimed to those around him, 
*' Have I not acted my part well? It is time for the applause." 

He was seventy-six years old. His subjects lamented his death 
with sincere grief, since they had felt the happy effects of his care. 
His funeral rites were performed in great solemnity ; his body was 
burned on the Campus Martius, and his ashes were placed in the 
splendid mausoleum which he had built for himself and his family. 
The Senate ordered him to be numbered among the gods of Rome. 

In appearance Augustus was of middle stature, his features reg- 
ular, and his eyes of uncommon brilliancy. He was a tolerable 
writer, and capable of distinguishing literary merit ; his chosen 
friends were all men of letters ; and his fame with posterity rests, 
in a great degree, upon that circle of poets, historians, and eminent 
scholars by whom he was surrounded. The Augustan Age, in- 
deed, forms one of the most remarkable periods in the history of 
the human intellect. 




Medal of Augustus, showiog the myrtle crown, or Corona ovalis. 




Medal of Nero, showing an Organ aud a sprig of Laurel, probably designed as a 
prize medal for a musician. 



CHAPTER XL. 

FKOM THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS, A.D. 14-37, TO DOMITIAN, 
A.D. 96. 

A FEELING resembling loyalty had grown up at Rome toward 
the family of Augustus, and no one ventured to dispute the claim 
of Tiberius to the throne. Livia, however, who had attended the 
death-bed of the emperor, concealed his death until her son ar- 
rived, and then proclaimed, at the same moment, the death of Au- 
gustus and the accession of his successor. The first event of the 
new reign was the assassination of Agrippa Postumus, grandson 
of Augustus, and, according to the modern rule of descent, the 
proper heir to the throne. The guilt of this act was shared be- 
tween Tiberius and his mother, who were also accused of having 
hastened the death of Augustus. 

Tiberius summoned the Senate to assemble, announced the death 
of the empei'or, and pretended a wish to be relieved from the cares 
of empire ; the Senate, however, refused to accept his feigned resig- 
nation, and he yielded to their wishes. This body now became the 
chief source of legislation. Tiberius took away from the people 
the power of making laws and of electing magistrates. The scna- 
tus considta, or decrees of the Senate, were made the source of law, 
without any authority from the Comitia. The Senate selected the 
Consuls from four candidates presented to them by the emperor, 
and thus the last trace of the popular power passed away. 

Meanwhile two mutinies occurred among the soldiers, which 



296 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XL. 

seemed at first to threaten a change in the government. The le- 
gions of Pannonia, complaining of long service and indifferent pay, 
rose against their commander Bltcsus, but were induced to return 
to their duty by Drusus, the son of Tiberius. A more important 
insurrection broke out among the legions of the Rhine, who sought 
to prevail upon Germanicus, the son of Drusus, to accept the impe- 
rial crown. Germanicus, however, who was adorned with many 
noble qualities, refused to yield either to their entreaties or their 
threats. Agrippina, his wife, with the infant Caius, joined Ger- 
manicus in imploring the soldiers not to forget their duty ; and 
they at length relented, and even gave up their leaders. 

Germanicus had now deserved the hatred of the jealous and 
treacherous Tiberius. He was beloved by the people and the army, 
was frank, generous, and brave ; he had married Agrippina, the 
daughter of Julia and Agrippa, and was the adopted son of the em- 
peror himself. His mind had been highly cultivated, and he ex- 
celled in all elegant exercises. He seems, in fact, to have been 
one of the noblest of the Romans. 

In A. D. 14 he led an army across the Rhine, but the next year 
planned a more important expedition, in which he defeated the 
Germans under Arminius, and buried the remains of the army of 
the unfortunate Varus under an earthen mound. His third cam- 
paign was still more successful. In a.d. 16 be gained an import- 
ant battle in the valley of the Weser, and recovered the last of the 
eagles lost by Vams. 

Tiberius, jealous of his fame, now recalled him, and resolved 
that the limits of the empire should not be enlarged. In a.d. 17 
Germanicus triumphed, surrounded in his chariot by his five sons. 
The same year he was sent to the East to settle the affairs of the 
Eastern provinces. Meanwhile a war broke out in Germany be- 
tween Arminius and Marboduus. Drusus was sent thither to con- 
trive the destruction of both leaders, which he seems to have ef- 
fected, since Marboduus was driven to seek protection from the 
Romans, while the brave Arminius was soon after slain by the 
hands of his fellow- Germans. 

Germanicus, in a.d. 18, visited Athens, sailed up the Nile the 
same year, and then, having returned to Syria, died of poison ad- 
ministered to him by Cn. Piso, a friend of the Empress Livia. His 
death excited great grief at Rome, where he was buried with so- 
lemnity in A.D. 20. Piso, meanwhile, being tried before the Sen- 
ate, and finding himself about to be condemned, sought a volun- 
tary death. 

Tiberius was cold and unpopular in his manners, awkward and 
even timid in his carriage, but a master of dissimuhition. The only 



A.D. U-96. FROM TIBERIUS TO DOMITIAN. 297 

person of whom he stood in awe was his mother Livia ; but he lived 
in constant fear of insurrection. The Lex Majestas, which he en- 
larged and enforced with unusual severity, was now the source of 
great evil to his countr}'. This law defined treason against the 
emperor. Tiberius made it include words as well as acts, and 
thus he who spoke lightly of the emperor's person or authority 
might be punished with death. 

From this law grew up the Delatores, or informers, persons who 
made it their chief occupation to denounce those who were obnox- 
ious to the emperor. The informers soon grew numerous : some 
of them were persons of high rank, who sought to display their elo- 
quence, and to win the favor of the emperor, by denouncing his 
opponents in envenomed rhetoric, while others were common spies. 
No man's life was safe at Rome from this moment, and the purest 
and wisest citizens were exposed to the attacks of an infinite num- 
ber of delators. Tiberius encouraged the informers, ^lius Sat- 
urninus was flung from the Tarpeian Rock for a libel upon the 
emperor. Silanus was banished for ' ' disparaging the majesty of 
Tiberius." 

Tiberius, who professed to imitate the policy of Augustus in ev- 
ery particular, seems to have governed with firmness and ability. 
He improved the condition of the provinces, restrained the avarice 
of the provincial governors, maintained good order in the capital, 
and strove to check the growth of luxury ; but the morals of the 
capital were now hopelessly depraved, and the vice and corruption 
of the whole world flowed into the streets of Rome. 

^lius Sejanus, the Praefect of the Praetorians, had long been the 
friend and chief adviser of the emperor. He was cruel, unscru- 
pulous, and ambitious — the proper instrument of a tyrant. In 
A.D. 21 an insurrection broke out in Gaul, which was scarcely 
subdued when the Germans rose against the Romans. The Gauls, 
too, led by Sacrovir, a Druid, who exercised a superstitious influ- 
ence over his countrymen, once more rebelled. Drnsus, who had 
been made Consul with his father, was sent against them, and re- 
duced them to subjection. The Druid Sacrovir burned himself in 
a house to which he had fled. In a.d. 22 Drusus received the 
tribunirian power. He was the only son of Tiberius, and was 
married to Livia, or Livilla, as she was sometimes called. 

Sejanus had now conceived a design which led him to resolve 
upon the destruction of all the imperial family, since he himself 
began to aspire to the throne ; and the elevation of Drusus filled 
him with disgust. In a.d. 23 he prevailed upon Tiberius to re- 
move all the Praetorian Guards, about nine or ten thousand in 
number, to a camp near the city. He appointed their officers, 



298 HISTOKY OF ROME. Chap. XL. 

won the soldiers with bribes and flatteries, and thus believed he had 
gained a sure support, * 

Drusus stood in his path, and he resolved to destroy him. He 
won the affections of Livilla, and prevailed upon her to poison her 
husband. The unhappy prince died in 23. Tiberius received the 
news of his son's death with a composure almost incredible. He 
told the Senate, who put on mourning robes, that he had given 
himself to his country. A splendid funeral procession was pre- 
pared for Drusus, in which the statues of Attus Clausus, the Sabine 
chief, the founder of the Claudian Gens, and of -^neas, and the 
Alban kings, were carried side by side, thus recalling the memories 
of the early regal dynasty, as well as of the severe founders of the 
liepublic. 

Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, together M'ith her numer- 
ous family, next aroused the hostihty of Sejanus, and he resolved 
upon their destruction. In a.d. 25 he proposed for the hand of 
Livilla, but Tiberius refused to sanction the connection. In a.d. 
26 eleven cities contended for the privilege of making Tiberius 
their tutelar deity, but he declined this honor. Soon after, the 
emperor, as if anxious to escape from the sarcasms and the scandal 
of Rome, retired from the city, accompanied by a single Senator, 
Cocceius Nerva, and at length, in a.d. 27, hid himself in the island 
of Caprege, on the coast of Campania. Here he built twelve villas 
in different parts of the island, and lived with a few companions, 
shut out from mankind. No one was allowed to land upon the 
shores of Capreae, and even fishermen who bi*oke this rule through 
ignorance were severely punished. Every day, however, dispatches 
were brought from the continent, and he still continued to direct 
the affairs of his vast empire. 

Sejanus was left to govern Rome, but frequently visited the Em- 
peror at his island. In a.d, 29, Livia, the widow of Augustus, 
died, at the age of eighty-six years, having retained her powerful 
intellect and her love of political intrigue to the close of her life. 
It is said that her private charities were great, and that she re- 
mained faithful to the memory of her imperial husband. The fam- 
ily of Germanicus, meanwhile, were crushed by the arts of Sejanus. 
In A.D. 29 Tiberius directed the Senate to banish Agrippina and 
her son Nero, and they were confined separately upon two barren 
islands. Drusus, the second son, was soon after imprisoned ; while 
Caius, the youngest, by his flatteries and caresses, preserved the fa- 
vor of Tiberius, and was admitted into Capreae. The emperor now 
began to doubt the fidelity of his chosen friend Sejanus, although 
their statues had been placed together in the Temple of Friendship 
on the island ; and he sent a letter to the Senate in which he de- 



A.D. 14-96. FROM TIBERIUS TO DOMITIAN. 



299 



nounced him as a traitor. Such was the end of a guilty friend- 
ship. Sejanus was flung in1<) the Mamertine Prison, and there 
strangled. The people threw his body into the Tiber, a.d. 31. 
Great numbers of his friends or relatives perished with him, and a 
general massacre filled Rome with teiTor. He was succeeded in 
his power by Sertorius Macro, who had aided in his destruction, 

Tiberius, meanwhile, seems to have become a raging madman. 
He put to death his niece Agrippina, with her two children, and 
ruled over the Senate with pitiless cruelty. His companion, Coc- 
ceius Nerva, filled with melancholy at the misfortunes of his coun- 
try, resolved upon suicide ; nor could all the entreaties or com- 
mands of Tiberius prevail upon him to live. In a.d. 35 Tiberius 
made his will, dividing his estate between Caius, the youngest son 
of Germanicus, and Tiberius Gemellus, the son of the second Dru- 
sus. Macro, probably fearing the fate of Sejanus, had formed a 
close intimacy with Caius, and they now planned the death of the 
emperor, whose feeble health, however, since he Avas near seventy- 
seven years of age, promised Rome a speedy deliverance. Tibe- 
rius died March 16, a.d. 37, Macro, it is said, having smothered 
him with a pillow. 

If we may trust the account of the Jew Philo, he left the empire 
in a prosperous condition. His cruelty, in fiict, seems to have been 
exercised upon the great and the rich, while the people lived in 
security. His administration may be said to have been a fortunate 
one. His character and his crimes disgrace human nature. 




Eeverses of Roman brass Coias, showing Galleys. 

Reign of Caius Caligula, a.d. 37-41.— Caius Caesar, known 
as Caligula, was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and men 
fondly hoped that he had inherited the virtues of his father, whom 
he resembled in his personal appearance. The soldiers proclaimed 
him emperor, and the Senate and the people acknowledged him 
with unfeigned joy. He was now twenty-five years of age, and his 



300 HISTORY OF KOME. Chap. XL. 

first acts were generous and humane. He recalled many exiles, 
abolished various taxes, and gratifl%d the people with spectacles 
and gifts. He also buried the remains of his mother and brother, 
who had died in exile, with decent solemnity. 

But, having been seized with a severe illness after he had reign- 
ed eight months, upon his recovery his mind seemed to have been 
fatally injured. He abandoned himself to cruelty and lust ; he 
surpassed the vices of Tiberius ; and at length, declaring himself 
to be a god, would often go through the streets of Rome dressed as 
Bacchus, Venus, or Apollo : he compelled the people to worship 
him, and made the wealthiest citizens his priests. He even con- 
ferred the consulship on his favorite horse. 

His boundless wastefulness soon consumed the public treasures, 
and he was forced to resort to every kind of extortion to obtain 
money. Having exhausted Rome and Italy, in a.d. 39 he led a 
large army across the Alps for the purpose of plundering Gaul, 
where the richest citizens were put to death and their property con- 
fiscated. He was assassinated in his palace January 24:, a.d. 41. 

Reign of Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero, a.d. 41-54. — The 
Emperor Claudius was the son of Drusus and Antonia, and the 
brother of Germanicus. He was fifty-one years old when, after the 
murder of Caligula, the Pra3torian Guard raised him to the throne. 
His health had always been delicate, his mind feeble, and he had 
never taken any part in public affairs. His first acts were popular 
and mild, but, having fallen under the conti'ol of his wife Messalina, 
who was a monster of wickedness, he put to death many of the best 
of the Romans. When, however, Messalina ventured to marry 
C. Silius, a young Roman knight, Claudius directed her execution. 
He then married his niece Agrippina, who prevailed upon him to 
set aside his son Britannicus, and to adopt her own son Nero, who 
was now destined for the throne. Nero was educated by the phi- 
losopher Seneca, together with Burrus Afranius, prtefect of the 
Pragtorians. Claudius, however, becoming suspicious of the de- 
signs of his wife, she resolved upon his death. Locusta, a noted 
poisoner, was hired to prepare a dish of poisoned mushrooms, of 
which Claudius ate; but the poison not proving fatal, the physician 
Xenophon forced a larger quantity into his throat, and he died 
October 13, a.d. 54. 

Claudius was fond of letters, and wrote memoirs of his own time 
and histories in Greek of Etruria and of Carthage. He also made 
various useful laws, and carried out several public works of import- 
ance. He completed the Claudian aqueduct, begun by Caligula, 
and built a fort and light-house at Ostia, and a tunnel from Lake 
Lucinus to the River Liris. Colonia Agripjjina (Cologne) was 



A.X). U-9G. FKOM TIBERIUS TO DOMITIAN. 301 

raised by his orders to the most important military station in Low- 
er Germany. 

In A.I). 43 a Roman army invaded Britain. Claudius himself 
entered that country soon after, and returned to Rome to triumph. 
But Vespasian, afterward emperor, together with his son Titus, 
overran Britain, defeated Caractacus, the brave British chieftain, 
and sent him and liis family prisoners to Rome. Claudius, pleased 
with his manly conduct, gave him his liberty. 

Nero, a.d. 54-08. — The first five years of the reign of Nero 
were marked by the mildness- and equity of his government. He 
discouraged luxury, reduced the taxes, and increased the authority 
of the Senate. His two preceptors, Seneca and Burrus, controlled 
his mind, and restrained for a time the constitutional insanity of 
the Claudian race. At length, however, he sank into licentious- 
ness, and from licentiousness to its necessary attendants, cruelty 
and crime. From a modest and j)hilosophic youth, Nero became 
the most cruel and dissolute of tyrants. He quarreled with his 
mother Agrippina, who for his sake had murdered the feeble Clau- 
dius; and when she threatened to restore Britannicus to the throne, 
he ordered that young prince to be poisoned at an entertainment. 
In order to marry Poppaa Sabina, a beautiful and dissolute wom- 
an, Avife of Salvius Otho, he resolved to divorce his wife Octavia, 
and also to murder his mother Agrippina. Under the pretense of 
a reconciliation, he invited Agrippina to meet him at Baiaj, Avhere 
she was placed in a boat, which fell to pieces as she entered it. 
Agrippina swam to the shore, but Avas there assassinated by the or- 
ders of her son. The Roman Senate congratulated Nero upon this 
fearful deed, while the philosopher Seneca wrote a defense of the 
matricide. The philosopher, the Senate, and the emperor seem 
worthy of each other. 

It would be impossible to enumerate all the crimes of Nero. In 
A.D. 64 a fire broke out in Rome, Avhich lasted for six days, con- 
suming tlie greater part of the city. Nero was supposed to have 
ordered the city to be fired, to obtain a clear representation of the 
burning of Ti'oy, and, while Rome was in flames, amused himself 
by playing upon musical instruments. He sought to throw the 
odium of this event upon the Christians, and inflicted upon them 
fearful cruelties. The city was rebuilt upon an improved plan, 
and Nero's palace, called the Golden House, occupied a large part 
of the ruined capital with groves, gardens, and buildings of un- 
equaled magnificence. 

In A.D. 65 a plot was discovered in which many eminent Ro- 
mans were engaged. The poet Lucan, Seneca, the philosopher 
and defender of matricide, together with many others, were put to 



302 HISTOEY OF ROINIE. Chap. XL. 

death. In a.d. 67 Nero traveled to Greece, and performed on the 
cithara at the Olympian and Isthmian games. He also contended 
for the prize in singing, and put to death a singer whose voice was 
louder than his own. Stained with every crime of which human 
nature is capable, haunted by the shade of the mother he had mur- 
dered, and filled with remorse, Nero was finally dethroned by the 
Prsetorian Guards, and died by his own hand, June 9, a.d. 68. He 
was the last of the Claudian family. No one remained who had 
an hereditary claim to the empire of Augustus, and the future em- 
perors were selected by the Praetorian Guards or the provincial 
legions. 

During this reign, Boadicea, the British queen, a.d. 61, rcA'olted 
against the Romans and defeated several armies ; but the govern- 
or, Suetonius Paulinus, conquered the insurgents in a battle in 
which eighty thousand Britons are said to have fallen. Boadicea, 
unwilling to survive her liberty, put an end to her life. 

On the death of Nero, Servius Sulpicius Galba, already chosen 
emperor by the Praetorians and the Senate, was murdered in the 
Forum, January, a.d. 69. He was succeeded by Salvius Otho, the 
infamous friend of Nero, and the husband of Poppaea Sabina. The 
legions on the Rhine, however, proclaimed their own commander, 
A. Vitellius, emperor, and Otho's forces being defeated in a battle 
near Bedriacum, between Verona and Cremona, he destroyed him- 
self. 

Vitellius, the new emperor, was remarkable for his gluttony and 
his coarse vices. He neglected every duty of his office, and soon 
became universally contemptible, Vespasian, the distinguished 
general, who had been fighting successfully against the Jews in 
Palestine, was proclaimed emperor by the governor of Egypt. 
Leaving his son Titus to continue the war, Vespasian prepared to 
advance upon Rome. His brave adherent, Antonius Primus, at 
the head of the legions of the Danube, without any orders from 
Vespasian, marched into Italy and defeated the army of Vitellius. 
The Praetorians and the Roman populace still supported Vitellius ; 
a fearful massacre took place in the city, and the Capitoline Tem- 
ple was burned ; but Antonius Primus took the Praetorian camp, 
and Vitellius was dragged from his palace and put to death, De- 
cember 20, A.D. 69. 

Reign of T. Flavius Vespasianus, a.d. 69-79. — Vespasian, 
the founder of the first Flavian family of emperors, was a soldier 
of fortune, who had risen from a low station to high command in 
the army. He was brave, active, free from vice, and, although fond 
of money, was never charged with extortion or rapacity. Toward 
the close of the summer, a.d. 70, he arrived in Rome, and received 



A.D. 14-96. FROM TIBERIUS TO DOMITIAN. 303 

the imperium from the Senate. He began at once to restore dis- 
cipline in the army, and raised to the rank of Senators and Kquites 
ilhistrious men from the provinces, as well as from Italy and Rome, 
thus giving to the provincials a certain shai*e in the government. 
The courts of justice were purified, the Delatores, or spies, were dis- 
countenanced, and trials for treason ceased. To increase his rev- 
enues, Vespasian renewed the taxes in several provinces which had 
been exempted by Nero, and he introduced economy and good or- 
der into the administration of the finances. Yet he expended large 
sums in rebuilding the Capitoline Temple, and also in completing 
the Colosseum, whose immense ruins form one of the most remark- 
able features in the modern scenery of Rome. He built, too, the 
Temple of Peace and a public library. He appointed lecturers 
upon rhetoric, with a salary of 100 sesterces, but was possessed 
himself of little mental cultivation. He is even said to have dis- 
liked literary men, and, in the year a.d. 74, expelled the Stoic and 
Cynic philosophers from Rome. 

In A.D. 70, September 2, his son Titus took the city of Jerusa- 
lem, after a brave defense by the Jews, who were finally betrayed 
by their own factions. The city was totally destroyed, and nearly 
half a million of the Jews perished in the siege. Those who sur- 
vived, being forbidden to rebuild their citj', Avere scattered over the 
empire, and each Jew was compelled to pay a yearly tax of two 
drachma, which Avas appropriated to rebuilding the Capitoline 
Temple. The Arch of Titus, which still exists at Rome, was 
erected in commemoration of the fall of Jerusalem. 

Vespasian's generals repressed an insurrection of the Germans, 
and in a.d. 71 C. Julius Agricola, father-in-law of the historian 
Tacitus, entered Britain as legate to Petilius Cerialis. He was 
made governor of the province in a.d. 77, and led his victorious 
armies as far north as the Highlands of Scotland. This excellent 
character, by his justice and moderation, reconciled the Britons to 
the Roman yoke. 

By his first wife, Flavia Domatilla, Vespasian had three chil- 
dren — Titus, Domitian, and Domatilla. When she died he formed 
an inferior kind of marriage with Coenis, a woman of low station, 
who, however, seems to have deserved his esteem. He died 23d 
of June, A.D. 79, at the age of seventy. Although never a refined 
or cultivated man, Vespasian, by his hardy virtues, restored the 
vigor of the Roman government, and gave peace and prosperity to 
his subjects ; while he who founded a library and established 
schools of rhetoric can not have been so wholly illiterate as some 
writers have imagined. 



304 HISTOKY OF ROME. Chap. XL. 



REIGN OF TITUS, A.D. 79-81. 

Titus was one of the most accomplished and benevolent of men. 
Eloquent, warlike, moderate in his desires, he was called A7nor et 
dellcice humani generis, ' ' The love and the delight of the human 
race." In early life he had been thought inclined to severity, and 
his treatment of the Jews, at the fall of their city, does not seem 
in accordance with his character for humanity. But no sooner had 
he ascended the throne than he won a general affection. Such 
was the mildness of his government that no one was punished at 
Rome for political offenses. Those who conspired against him he 
not only pardoned, but took into his familiarity. He was so gen- 
erous that he could refuse no request for aid. He was resolved, he 
said, that no one should leave his presence sorrowful ; and he 
thought that day lost in which he had done no good deed. Titus 
wrote poems and tragedies in Greek, and was familiar with his na- 
tive literature. During his reign, a.d. 79, occurred a violent erup- 
tion of Vesuvius, together with an earthquake, by which Hercula- 
neum, StabijB, and Pompeii, three towns on the Bay of Naples, 
were destroyed. The emperor was so touched by the sufferings of 
the inhabitants that he expended nearly his whole private fortune 
in relieving their wants. Pompeii and Herculaneum, which were 
covered by lava or ashes, were thus preserved from farther decay, 
and, having been partially excavated and restored, enable us to form 
a truthful conception of the domestic life of the Roman cities in the 
age of Titus. We here enter the villas of the rich or the humble 
homes of the poor, and find every where traces of comfort, elegance, 
and taste. 

The next year after the destruction of these cities, a fire broke 
out in Rome, which raged for three days, desolating the finest re- 
gions of the city. The Capitoline Temple was again destroyed, 
together with many buildings in the Campus Martius. A pesti- 
lence followed soon after, which ravaged Rome and all Italy. 

In A.D. 81 Titus dedicated the Colosseum, which was now com- 
pleted, and also his famous baths, the ruins of which may still be 
visited at Rome. Splendid games and spectacles were exhibited 
in honor of these events. Few military events occurred during this 
reign, tlie empire being perfectly quiet, except where the active 
Agricola was subduing the wandering tribes of Scotland. 

At length Titus, having gone to the Sabine villa where his fa- 
ther Vespasian died, was himself suddenly arrested by death. It 
was believed that his brother Domitian was the cause of this un- 
happy event, and all the people lamented their emperor as if they 
had lost a father or a friend. Titus died September 13, a.d. 81. 



A.D. 14-96. FROM TIBERIUS TO DOMITIAN. 305 

REIGN OF DOMITIAN, A.D. 81-96. 

Domitian, who was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers upon his 
brother's death, possessed the mental ability of the Flavian family, 
joined to the vices and cruelty of the Claudian. In him Nero or 
Caligula seemed revived. His first political acts, however, were 
often useful, and for several years he concealed his true disposi- 
tion. But he soon surrounded himself with spies and informers, 
and put to death the noblest men of his time. To preserve the 
fidelity of the soldiers he doubled their pay, while he won the pop- 
ulace by games and donations. But, to maintain his expenditure, 
he confiscated the property of the richer citizens, and no man of 
wealth was safe from an accusation of treason. 

Agricola, who had gained a great victory over the Caledonians 
at the foot of the Grampian Hills, and who was about to subdue all 
Scotland, Domitian recalled, being jealous of his military fame ; and 
that brave leader passed the last eight years of his life in retire- 
ment at Rome, in order to avoid the suspicions of the tyrant. 
Meanwhile, the Dacians, led by their king Decebalus, having 
crossed the Danube, Domitian took the field against them, and, in 
A.D. 90, was defeated, and forced to conclude a humiliating peace. 
Yet, on his return to Rome, he celebrated a triumph, assuming the 
name of Dacicus. The next year an insurrection broke out among 
the German legions, which was, however, suppressed. 

Domitian now ordered himself to m styled the " Lord and God," 
and was worshiped with divine honors, A ferocious jealousy of 
all excellence in others seemed to possess him with rage against 
the wise and good. The most eminent of the nobility were put to 
death. All philosoi)hers, and among them the virtuous Epictetus, 
were banished from Rome. The Christians, which name now in- 
cluded many persons of high station, were murdered in great num- 
bers. At last the tyrant resolved to put to death his wife Domi- 
tia, but she discovered his design, and had him assassinated, 18th 
September, a.d. 96. The Senate passed a decree that his name 
should be erased from all public monuments, and refused to yield 
to the wishes of the soldiers, who would have proclaimed him a god. 
U 




Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius, about A.D. 138, showing figure of Britannia. 
CHAPTEK XLI. 

PEOSPEKITT OF THE EMPIRE, A.D. 96. — COMMODUS, A.D. 180. — 
REIGN OF M. COCCEIUS NERVA, A.D. 96-98, 

This venerable man was sixty-four years old when he was pro- 
claimed emperor upon the death of Domitian. He Avas a native 
of the town of Narnia, in Umbria, and his virtues had won him a 
general esteem. The Prastorians, who had not been consulted in 
his election, never looked upon him with favor, and Nerva was 
obliged to act with great caution. He stopped trials for high trea- 
son, pardoned political offenders, diminished taxes, recalled exiles, 
and strove by every honest art to attain popularity. But the Prae- 
torians, becoming mutinous, jaot only put the murderers of Domi- 
tian to death, but forced the emperor to approve of their act pub- 
licly. This insult was deeply felt by Nerva, who now resolved to 
adopt a colleague, in order to increase his own authority. He 
therefore selected M. Ulpius Trajan, a distinguished general, who 
was in command of the army of Lower Germany. 

We now enter upon the most pleasing period in the history of 
the Roman Empire. During the next eighty years a general pros- 
perity prevailed. The emperors were all men Avorthy to command, 
and capable of giving tranquillity to their vast dominions. Several 
of them were of the purest morals, of high mental cultiA'ation, and 
are still looked upon as ornaments of the human race ; and Avhile 
they could not check the decline of their people, these virtuous em- 
perors prevented, for a time, the fall of the Roman Empire. 

Nerva, in order to elevate the condition of his people, purchased 
lands, which he disti'ibuted among them, and he sought to make 
them feel the necessity of labor and of self-dependence. But it 
was too late to reform the manners of the indolent, licentious plebs, 
corrupted by the indulgence of their tyrants. Nerva died of a fe- 
ver, January 27, a.d. 98. 



A.D. 98-117. TROSrERlTY OE THE EMPIRE. 307 

M. ULPIUS TRAJANUS, A.D. 98-117. 

Trajan, the first emperor who was not a native of Italy, was boi*n 
at Italica, in Spain, and was about forty years of age at the death 
of Nerva, His memory was so much revered among the Romans, 
that, two hundred and fifty years later, the Senate hailed the acces- 
sion of the new emperor with the prayer that he might be happier 
than Augustus, better than Trajan. He was free from every vice 
except an occasional indulgence in wine. His mind was natu- 
rally strong, his manners pleasing, his appearance noble and impo- 
sing. He desired only to restore the simiDle manners and virtuous 
habits of an earlier age. 

Trajan, after his adoption by Nerva, entered upon his high office 
at Cologne, and then traveled toward Rome. In a.d. 99 he en- 
tered that city on foot, followed by a small retinue, and was re- 
ceived with general good will. He abolished the trials for high 
treason, y«c?it7'a majestatis, which had made Rome so often a scene 
of terror, restored freedom of speech to the Senate, revived the 
Comitia for the election of magistrates, and bound himself by oath 
to observe the laws. He punished the principal informers, banish- 
ing many of them to the barren islands around Italy, while he at 
once, by severe measures, reduced the turbulent Prajtorians to obe- 
dience. His wife Plotina, who was a woman of excellent charac- 
ter, with her sister Marcina, revived by their virtues the dignity of 
the Roman matron. The society of the city was purified, and the 
family of the emperor offered an example of propriety that pro- 
duced an excellent effect upon the manners of the higher ranks. 

Among the first acts of Trajan was the foundation of public 
schools for the education and maintenance of poor children in 
various parts of Italy. He founded, too, the Ulpian Library at 
Rome, and adorned every part of his empire with magnificent build- 
ings, roads, bridges, and various useful improvements. He seemed 
to live, in fact, wholly for his people, and passed his life in devising 
and executing plans for their advantage. 

When Decebalus, king of the Dacians, sent to demand the trib- 
ute which had been promised him by Domitian, Trajan refused to 
be bound by the disgraceful treaty, and, having levied an army of 
G0,000 men, marched against the Dacians, who had boldly ad- 
vanced across the Danube. A terrible battle took place, in which 
the Romans were victorious ; but so great was the slaughter that 
sufficient linen could not be obtained to dress the wounds of the 
soldiers, and Trajan tore up his imperial robes to supply their 
wants. He took the capital of the Dacian king, defeated him in 
various encounters, and compelled him (a.d. 102) to make peace, 



308 



HISTORY OF EOME. 



giving up a part of his territory. Having re- 
turned to Rome, Trajan received from the 
Senate the surname of Dacicus. But in a.d. 
104 the Dacians again rose in arms, and the 
Senate declared Decebalus a public enemy. 
Trajan led an army in person against the bar- 
barians, and, to provide for an easy access to 
their territory, built a stone bridge across the 
Danube of immense size and strength, forti- 
fied at each end with towers. He next ad- 
vanced into the midst of the hostile country, 
took the capital of the Dacians, and reduced 
them to subjection. Decebalus, in despair, 
fell by his own hand. All Dacia, comprising 
the modern countries of Moldavia, Wallachia, 
and Transylvania, was made a Roman prov- 
ince ; and several Roman colonies were plant- 
ed among the barbarians, thus for the first 
time preparing for the spread of civilization 
in that savage country. Trajan now returned 
to Rome, to triumph a second time for his Da- 
cian successes. He also began that famous 
Column in commemoration of his victories 
which still stands at Rome, and which shows 
in its rich sculpture the various captives and 
spoils of the Dacian war. 

Arabia Petrcea was also at this time added 
to the Roman Empire, after which a peace of 
several years succeeded. In a.d. 114, a Par- 
thian war breaking out, Trajan hastened to 
the East, and, having passed the winter at 
Antioch, witnessed a severe earthquake, which 
shook that city as well as all Syria. He him- 
self escaped with difficulty from a falling 
house. In the spring, at the head of his le- 
gions, he overran Armenia and formed it into 
a province. He next built a bridge across the 
Tigris, resembling that upon the Danube, and 
led his army into Assyria, a country never yet 
visited by a Roman general. He took Baby- 
lon and Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian 
kingdom, and, sailing down the Tigris, passed 
through the Persian Gulf, and annexed a large 
portion of Arabia Felix to his empire. The 



A.D. 98-117. PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE. 309 

Jews, too, about this time revolted, but were subdued, after a brave 
resistance, and treated with great severity. His Eastern conquests, 
however, proved by no means secure, and his new subjects revolted 
as soon as his armies were gone. In a.d. 117 Trajan entered South- 
ern Arabia to complete the subjection of that country, when he 
was seized with a dropsy and forced to return to Rome. He did 
not reach that city, but died, August 9th, a.d. 117, at Selinus, in 
Cilicia. His ashes were carried to Rome, and placed under the 
magnificent column which recorded his Dacian victories. 

Daring Trajan's reign, the empire, already too extensive, Avas 
made more unwieldy by his various conquests. He was evidently 
ambitious of the fame of a conqueror, and possessed many of the 
qualities of an able general. He was also a skillful ruler of his 
immense dominions, leaving no portion unprotected by his vigi- 
lance. The only stain upon his fame is his persecution of the 
Christians, whom he continued to treat with severity even when 
convinced of their perfect innocence. 

After the conclusion of the Dacian war he celebrated games and 
spectacles, which are said to have lasted through four months, and 
in which ten thousand gladiators fought and suffered for the enter- 
tainment of the people — a proof that the Romans were yet, in some 
respects, barbarians. Trajan, however, forbade the performance of 
indecent pantomimes. Trajan's bridge across the Danube is de- 
scribed by Dion Cassius as of greater importance than any of his 
other works. He designed it to form an easy access to his Dacian 
province. It was formed of twenty stone piers, distant about 170 
feet from each other, and sixty feet wide : they were probably con- 
nected by arches of wood. Trajan also began to make roads across 
the Pontine Marshes, and founded several public libraries. Pliny 
the younger, who lived during this reign, was the most eminent 
literary man of the time, and wrote a fine panegyric upon his friend 
the emperor. Pliny saw the first eruption of Vesuvius, in \|hich 
his uncle and adopted father, the elder Pliny, perished. He was 
a person of great wealth and uncommon generosity, having given 
300,000 sesterces yearly to maintain the children of the poor in his 
native town of Comum. His letters to Trajan show that he was 
an excellent master, husband, and friend, and we may well believe 
that in this happy period many Romans resembled Trajan and his 
learned correspondent. 

REIGN OP HADRIAN, A.D. 117-138. 

Hadrian, descended from a family of Hadria, in Picenum, was 
a military commander, distinguished for his courage and activity. 



310 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLI. 

His father had married an aunt of the late emperor, who, upon the 
father's death, was appointed one of Hadrian's guardians. Yet it 
is supposed Trajan made no nomination of a successor to the 
throne, and that his wife Plotina forged the will by which the 
world was made to believe that he had adopted Hadrian. This 
will was, however, published, and Hadrian entered upon his govern- 
ment at Antioch, August 11th, a.d. 117, and was there proclaimed 
emperor. The Senate, to whom he wrote a letter announcing his 
appointment, at once confirmed him in his power. He now made 
peace wiih the Parthians, and restored to Chosroes, their king, As- 
syria and Mesopotamia. He adopted the policy of Augustus, refus- 
ing to extend the limits of the empire. In a.d. 118 he returned to 
Rome, but was soon forced to march to the defense of the province 
of Moesia, which had been invaded by the Sarmatue and Roxolani. 
His object being merely to preserve the boundaries of the empire, 
he concluded a peace with the Roxolani, and probably purchased 
their submission. He was about to march against the Sarmatae, 
when the news of a conspiracy at Rome was brought to him. He 
seems to have ordered the leaders to be put to death, although he 
afterward denied that he had done so. Having returned to Rome, 
he endeavored to win the affections of the people by donations, 
games, and gladiatorial shows. He also canceled a large amount 
of unpaid taxes, now due for fifteen years, and promised the Sena- 
tors never to punish one of their body without their approval. He 
divided Italy into four regions, a Consular Magistrate being placed 
over each ; and he introduced a new system of administration into 
the palace, the army, and the state, which lasted until the reign of 
Constantine the Great. 

In A.D. 119 he began a journey through all the provinces of his 
empire, in order to examine into their condition, and to discover 
and amend any faults in the system of government. Hadrian, too, 
was|pnd of travel, and was never content to remain long in repose. 
A ]arj;e part of his reign was occupied with this important journey. 
He first visited Gaul and Germany, and thence, in a.d. 121, passed 
over into Britain. Here he found the Britons already partially 
civilized, but unable to defend themselves from the incursions of 
their neiglibors the Caledonians. To protect them from these fo- 
rays, he built a wall across the island from the mouth of the Tyne 
to Solway, remains of which are still shown to the traveler. On 
his return he adorned the town of Nemausus (Nismes) with fine 
buildings, and then went into Spain, wliere he passed the winter. 
He returned to Rome a.d. 122, but soon after went to Athens, 
where he spent three years. During his residence in that city he 
began many magnificent buildings, and he seems to have looked 



A.D. 131. PKOSPEKITY OF THE EMPIRE. 



311 



upon Athens with singular aifcction and reverence. He visited 
Sicily, returned to Rome, set out for Africa, whence, after a brief 
visit, he once more visited Athens, to view the completion of his 
architectural designs. He finished the Temple of the Olympian 
Jupiter, the largest and most magnificent in the world, which had 
been commenced by Pisistratus, and left many other fine works 
behind him. Then he passed through Asia, inspecting the con- 
duct of the provincial officers, and next traveled through Syria 
into Egypt, Avhere his favorite Antinous, a beautiful youth, was 
drowned. This event seems to have filled him with a lasting grief. 
At length, in a.d. 131, he returned to Rome. 




Mole of Hadiiau restoied 



Here he published the Edictvvi Perpetimm, a codification of the 
edicts of the Roman Praetors, which w-as composed by Salvius Ju- 
lianus, an eminent lawyer. The design of this work was to con- 
dense the vast body of the law into a convenient form. 

A revolt broke out among the Jews, Hadrian having estab- 
lished a colony called ^lia Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem, 
and, not content with introducing pagan worship into the holy city, 
had even issued an edict forbidding the practice of circumcision. 
1 This mausoleum, begun by Hadrian, is now the Castle of St. Angelo. 



a 12 • HISTORY OF ROME. Chap.XLI. 

These imprudent measures produced a revolt among the Jews, 
who, under their leader Barcochab, fought with their usual courage 
and desperation. The war continued for several years, during 
which more than half a million of Jews are said to have perished. 
At length Julius Severus came from Britain to lead the Roman ar- 
mies, and the rebellion was suppressed. The Jews were now for- 
bidden to live in Jerusalem or its neighborhood, and the nation was 
scattered over the habitable world. 

A war which seemed about to break out with the Albanians and 
Iberians in the East was prevented by Hadrian, who, with his usual 
policy, sent large presents to his enemies, and thus converted them 
into friends. He now returned from his travels to Rome, where 
he built his magnificent villa at Tibur, the extensive ruins of which 
may still be seen ; and he passed the remainder of his life either at 
Tibur or in Rome. His health had been affected by his incessant 
labors, and in a.d. 135 he was seized with dropsy. Having no chil- 
dren, he adopted L. Ceionius, under the name of L. JElius Verus, a 
young noble, who, however, died on the first day of the year a.d. 
138. Hadrian then adopted Arrius Antoninus (afterward the Em- 
peror Antoninus Pius), and presented him as his successor to the 
Senators assembled around his bed. At the same time he obliged 
him to adopt L. Commodus Verus, the son of the former Verus, 
and also M. Annius Verus, the future Emperor Marcus Aurelius. 
Ill health seems now to have fatally affected the mind and dispo- 
sition of Hadrian. He became morose and cruel. He put many 
eminent nobles to death, and is said to have sunk into debauchery 
at his Tiburtine villa. His disease proving incurable, he several 
times attempted suicide ; but having removed to Baias, hoping for 
some relief in that fine climate, he died there July 10th, a.d. 138, 
aged sixty-three. He was buried in the villa of Cicero, near Pute- 
oli. When the Senate, enraged at his cruelties in the latter part of 
his life, wished to annul his acts, and would have refused him divine 
honors, Antoninus interposed, and excused his adopted father on 
the plea that ill health had disordered his mind. For this filial 
conduct he received the name of Pius. The Senate not only num- 
bered Hadrian among the deities, but ordered temples to be erected 
in his honor. He left the empire prosperous and at peace. Dur- 
ing his reign the Senate lost its importance in the administration 
of affairs, since Hadrian supplied its place by a Consistorium Prin- 
cipis, or council, composed of eminent men, presided over by a dis- 
tinguished lawyer. Hadrian was fond of letters and the arts, and 
adorned every part of his empire with fine buildings or useful 
works. Wherever he traA^eled he did something for the benefit of 
his subjects. 



A.D. 138-161. PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE. 



313 




Reverse of a brass (Join of Antoninus Pius. 



REIGN OF ANTONINUS PIUS, A.D. 138-161. 

This excellent man was born at Lanuvium, September 19th, 
A.D. 86, but his family came from the town of Nemausis (Nismes), 
in Gaul. Soon after his accession to the empire he married his 
daughter Faustina to Marcus Aurelius, procured for him the tribu- 
nitian and proconsular power from the Senate, and made him his 
associate in the labors of the government. His tranquil and pros- 
perous reign is the most pleasing period in the history of the Ro- 
man Empire. TIiq world enjoyed a general peace, and the emperor 
endeavored, by every wise measure, to secure the prosperity of his 
subjects. Like Numa, to whom he has often been compared, An- 
toninus was the peacemaker between distant nations, who were ac- 
customed to submit their differences to him, and to abide implicitly 
by his award. He checked the persecutions to which the Chris- 
tians had been exposed in former reigns, and to him Justin Martyr 
addressed his apology for Christianity. He watched carefully the 
conduct of the provincial governors, and applied the public reve- 
nues to founding schools, repairing roads and harbors, and encour- 
aging every where industry and trade. When Asia and Rhodes 
were devastated by an earthquake, Antoninus expended large sums 
in relieving the sufferers by that calamity, as well as those who 
were reduced to indigence by the great fires which nearly destroyed 
Carthage, Narbonne, and Antioch, in a.d. 153. He appointed 
teachers of rhetoric in various cities of the empire, conferred hon- 
ors and emoluments upon men of letters, and in a.d. 141 founded 
a charity-schfjol for orphan girls, whom he styled Pudke Aliinenin- 



314 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLI. 

rice Faitstiniancp, in memory of his wife Faustina, who had died the 
year before. Faustina, however, does not seem to have merited his 
.esteem, and the emperor was well acquainted with her faults; yet 
he generously overlooked them while she lived, and upon her death 
paid unusual honors to her memory. His piety, his devotion to tlie 
national religion, and his various virtues, seem to have won for 
him universal love and veneration, and his successors during the 
next century assumed the name of Antoninus as their worthiest 
title. 

Antoninus made no attempt to extend the boundaries of the em- 
pire. The barbarous races who were now beginning to swarm 
vipon the frontiers, the Germans and the Dacians, were held in 
check ; and although the Brigantes made several inroads into Brit- 
ain, they were defeated by A. Lollius, the Legate, in a.d. 141 ; and 
a wall of turf was raised beyond the former wall built by Agricola 
to check the incursions of the Caledonians. This peaceful reign, 
liowever, seems to have increased the general indolence of the peo- 
ple, and the martial spirit of the Roman soldiers declined in the 
idleness of their stationary camps. After a reign of twenty-three 
years, Antoninus died, March 7th, a.d. 161, in his villa at Lorium, 
aged seventy-five years. 

EEIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS, A.D. 161-180. 

He was succeeded by Aurelius, who was born at Rome a.d. 121. 
This pi-ince is known as the Philosopher ; and the wish of Plato 
that philosophers might be kings, or kings philosophers, seems to 
have been fulfilled at his accession. Aurelius had been from his 
youth a lover of truth. His morals and his intellect were trained 
by the pui'est and wisest men of his age. He had studied under 
Herodes Atticus and Cornelius Fronto, two famous rhetoricians, 
and also under the Stoic philosophers Junius Rusticus and Apol- 
lonius ; and he had been constantly employed by his adopted fa- 
ther Antoninus as an associate in all his useful and benevolent de- 
signs. His health was, however, delicate, and he now admitted to 
a share in the empire his adopted brother, L.Verus, who possessed 
a vigorous constitution, but was addicted to licentious pleasures. 

The general peace which had prevailed during the reign of Mar- 
cus Antoninus was forever passed away, and the world was in fu- 
ture to be desolated by almost perpetual hostilities. The Parthian 
king Vologeses III. having invaded the eastern provinces, and cut 
to pieces a Roman legion, L. Verus was sent to oppose his advance ; 
but upon arriving at Antioch, Verus remained there, plunged in 
dissipation, while his brave lieutenant Avidius Cassius drove back 



A.D. 161-180. PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE. 315 

the Parthians, invaded Mesopotamia, destroyed Seleucia, and pen- 
etrated to Babylon. Another Roman general conquered Armenia, 
and restored the legitimate king Sosemus to his throne. At the 
close of the war, Verus, a.d. 1G6, returned to Rome, and triumphed. 
His army brought the plague with it from the East, which now 
desolated Italy and Rome. Many illustrious men died ; but the fa- 
mous physician Galen (Claudius Galenus), who had come from Per- 
gamus to Rome, was now enabled to exhibit his uncommon pro- 
fessional skill. This pestilence lasted for several years. 

Verus died of intemperance a.d. 171, and Aurelius prevailed 
upon the Senate to rank him among the gods. He now marched 
against the Marcomanni, but was defeated in a great battle, and, 
in order to provide a new army, sold the imperial plate and jewels. 
He now took up a position at Sirmium (Sirmich), and endeavored 
to wear out the barbarians by skirmishes and sudden attacks, with- 
out venturing far from his strong-hold. At length, however, upon 
one occasion, having been drawn into a defile, the Roman army 
was relieved by a fierce storm of thunder and rain, which terrified 
the barbarians. Tradition attributes this sudden storm to the 
prayers of a Christian legion. The barbarians now submitted, and 
withdrew beyond the Danube. 

Soon after, an insurrection broke out in Syria, where Avidius 
Cassius, at the instigation, it is said, of the emperor's wife Faustina, 
had proclaimed himself emperor. But Cassius, by his severity, dis- 
gusted his own soldiers, and was assassinated by a centurion. 
Aurelius lamented this event, since it deprived him of an oppor- 
tunity of showing clemency to an erring friend. He at once set 
out for the East, and there freely forgave all those who had con- 
spired against him. He took the young family of Cassius under 
his protection, and ordered the papers of that officer to be destroy- 
ed, lest they might disclose the names of the conspirators. Fausti- 
na, who had accompanied her husband to Cilicia, died soon after, 
it is said, by her own hand. 

It is remarkable that this philosophic emperor should have per- 
mitted a cruel persecution of the Christians in a.d. 177, perhaps 
at the instigation of the Stoic philosophers — the only blot upon his 
general humanity and benevolence. Among tlie victims of this 
persecution was Justin Martyr, the author of the Apologies for 
Christianity, addressed to Antoninus, as well as to Aurelius him- 
self. Toward the close of his reign, having become convinced of 
the falseness of the charges made against the Christians, Aurelius 
became once more tolerant and philosophic. 

In A.D. 176 the emperor triumphed at Rome for his various suc- 
cesses. He gave a donation of eight pieces of gold to every citi- 



316 HISTORY OF ROME. Chai-. XLI. 

zen, and made his son Commodus his colleague. In the mean time 
the barbarians in the interior of Europe, moved by a general im- 
pulse, began to press upon the frontiers of the empire, and from 
this time seem never to have ceased their inroads until the final 
destruction of the Roman power. Aurelius marched, a.d. 177, to 
the frontier, defeated the barbarians in various engagements, and 
had perhaps proved the savior and second founder of Rome, when 
he was seized with a fever at Vindobona (Vienna), a.d. 180, and 
died after a few days' illness. He was the last of the Roman em- 
perors who labored for the welfare of his people. He was, no 
doubt, the greatest and wisest of them all, and he united the differ- 
ent talents of a man of learning, a fine writer, a skillful soldier, 
and a benevolent, judicious ruler. His ' ' Meditations, " which have 
made him known to posterity, are among the most delightful pro- 
ductions of the human intellect, while his private character seems 
to have been no less attractive than his writings. 

REIGN OF M. COMMODUS ANTONINUS, A.D. 180-192. 

The depraved Commodus succeeded his virtuous father at the 
age of twenty. He had been educated with singular care, but was 
wholly given up to coarse sensuality. The people, however, still 
hoped that he might be worthy of his father, and received him, 
upon his accession, with loud expressions of joy. For a short time 
he concealed his true disposition ; but his sister Lucilla, jealous of 
her brother's wife Crispina, formed a conspiracy against him in 
A.D. 182, and he escaped with difficulty from the hand of the as- 
sassin. From this moment he threw off all disguise, and indulged 
his natural vices without restraint. He put to death the most il- 
lustrious men of the time, encouraged informers and false accusa- 
tions, and filled Rome with terror. In the midst of these cruelties 
he often sang, danced, or played the buffoon in public, fought as a 
gladiator in the circus, and ordered the people to worship him as a 
. second Hercules. His lieutenant Marcellus, in a.d. 184, defeated 
the Caledonians, after they had passed the long wall of Hadrian, 
and had ravaged the northern part of Britain ; and in a.d. 191 an 
invasion of the Frisians was repelled. Commodus, however, paid 
no attention to the affairs of the empire. In a.d. 189 Italy suffer- 
ed from a pestilence and famine, when the people of Rome rose 
against the emperor's prasfect. Oleander, and tore him to pieces. 
Commodus still continued his murders, and was at last assassinated 
by the directions of his mistress, Marcia, whose death he had re- 
solved upon. He died December 31st, a.d. 192. The Senate or- 
dered his memory to be held infamous, and his body to be dragged 



A.D. 102. PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE. 



317 



by iron hooks through the streets, and then to be thrown into the 
Tiber ; but his successor Pertinax prevailed that it should be placed 
in the mausoleum of Hadrian. Such was the son of Marcus Au- 
relius. 




Clommocius. 




Pertinax. 
CHxiPTER XLIL^ 

FROM PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. A.D. 192-284. 

Pertinax, an aged senator of consular rank, and now Praefect 
of tiie city, was summoned by the conspirators, who came to his 
house late at night, after the mui'der of Commodus, to ascend the 
vacant throne. He was one of the few friends and ministers of 
Marcus Aurelius who yet survived, and, having filled many im- 
portant offices, had always been distinguished for firmness, pru- 
dence, and integi'ity. The rumor v/as spread that Commodus had 
died of apoplexy, and that Pertinax had succeeded him ; but the 
Praetorian Guards were dissatisfied at his election. The Senate, 
however, confirmed the choice of the conspirators, and Pertinax 
lived among his own order rather as an equal than a master. His 
manners were simple, his mode of life frugal, and he sought to re- 
vive the pleasing simplicity of the early Republic. 

Pertinax administered justice with strictness, released those who 
had been left in prison by Commodus, reformed the finances and 
introduced economy, redivided the uncultivated lands among those 
who would till them, removed oppressive restrictions upon trade, 
and desei'ved the respect of the wiser portion of his subjects. 

But the Praetorians were never reconciled to his rule, and on the 
28th of March, a.d. 193, eighty-six days after his election, they 



A.D. 192-284. PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. 



319 



broke into the imperial palace, and struck down the emperor with 
innumerable blows. His head was separated from his body, and, 
being placed upon a lance, was carried in triumph to the Praeto- 
rian camp, while the people silently lamented the death of this vir- 
tuous ruler. 

The soldiers, meanwhile, proclaimed from the ramparts of their 
camp that the throne of the world would be sold at auction to the 
highest bidder. Didius Julianus, a wealthy Senator, whose age 
had not quenched his vanity and ambition, offered about a thou- 
sand dollars to each man for the possession of the prize. He was 
declared emperor,, and, surrounded by the armed Praetorians, was 
carried to the Senate, who were forced to accept the selection of 
the soldiers. But the Senators and the people felt deeply the dis- 
grace of their country, and even the Pratorians Avere ashamed of 
their unworthy choice. Julianus found himself on the throne of 
the world without a friend. 

The armies in the provinces, when they heard of these transac- 
tions at the capital, rose in revolt, and refused to acknowledge the 
4\uthority of Julian. Clodius Albinus commanded the legions in 
Britain, Septimius Severus those in Pannonia, and Pescennius Ni- 




ger the army of the East. Severus, more active than his competi- 
tors, was saluted by his soldiers as emperor, and marched rapidly 
toward Rome. Julian, deserted by the Praetorians, was condemned 
to death by the Senate, and was executed as a common criminal 



320 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLII. 

after a reign of only sixty-six days. Severns was acknowledged 
as their lawful emperor by the Senate, June 2, a.d. 193, and his 
first act was to disarm the Praetorian Guards and banish them from 
the capital. 

He next marched against Niger, and defeated him in two bat- 
tles, while he was also successful in a severe contest with Clodius 
Albinus at Lyons. Both of his competitors were put to death, and 
Severus, now set free from fear of rivalry, began to show the native 
cruelty of his disposition. Forty-one Senators, whom he accused 
of having favored Albinus, were executed, with their wives and 
children ; and many of the provincial nobles of Spain and Gaul 
shared their fate. Yet Severus was in many respects a useful 
ruler ; strict in the administration of the laws, careful to correct 
abuses, and restraining his subjects with stern impartiality. Peace 
returned to the provinces, cities were repeopled, roads repaired, 
Rome abounded in provisions, and the people were satisfied. Sev- 
erus changed the constitution of the Prsetorian Guards, and filled 
up their ranks with the bravest soldiers of the legions of the frontier. 
These barbarians, he thought, would be able to suppress any rebel- 
lion that might arise ; and he increased the number to fifty thou- 
sand men. The Preefect of the Praetorians, who had at first been 
a simple soldier, now became the chief minister of the emperor, 
and was at the head of the finances and even of the law. The 
celebrated lawyer Papinian was appointed Preefect after the fall of 
Plautianus ; and several great jurisconsults, particularly Paulus 
and Ulpian, flourished under the reign of Severus or his family. 

Severus, however, was a military despot, and, despising the fee- 
ble Senate, assumed both the legislative and the executive power. 
The jurisconsults, in fiict, from this reign, begin to treat the em- 
peror as the source of all law, the Senate and the people being no 
longer considered in the state. But this arbitrary rule, introduced 
by Severus, is thought to have tended more than any thing else to 
destroy the vigor of the Roman Empire, by leading the people to 
an abject dependence upon their rulers. 

The wife of Severus, Julia Domna, a Syrian lady of great beauty 
and various accomplishments, became the mother of two sons, Car- 
acalla and Geta, and the emperor hoped that they would prove 
worthy of the high office to which they were born. They soon, 
however, showed themselves incapable of any serious study or em- 
ployment, and were chiefly remarkable for the hatred they bore to- 
ward each other. The court was already divided into two factions, 
composed of the adherents of either son ; and the emperor, who in 
vain strove to remove their rivalry, foresaw that one must fall a 
victim to the hatred of the other. 



A.D. 192-284. PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. 



321 



In A.D. 208 a war broke out in Britain, and Severus, although 
now more than sixty years of age, and afflicted with the gout, so 
that he was carried on a litter, set out at the head of his army, at- 
tended by his two sons, and penetrated into the interior of Scot- 
land. This was his last enterprise, for he died at York, February 
4, A.D. 211. He left his empire to his two sons, who returned to 
Eome, and were acknowledged by the Senate and the army. 




Caracalla. 

Their discord, however, still continued, and they planned a divi- 
sion of the empire, a measure which was then distasteful to all the 
Romans, and which was only prevented from taking place by the 
tears and entreaties of their mother, Julia Domna. Geta, the 
younger son, who was of a gentle disposition, soon after, in a.d. 212, 
February 27th, was murdered by the cruel and relentless Caracalla. 
Twenty thousand of his friends are said to have been put to death 
at the same time, and his unhappy mother, Julia Domna, was 
forced to receive her guilty son with feigned smiles and words of 
approbation. Remorse, however, fastened upon Caracalla, and the 
shade of Geta haunted him wherever he went. His cruelties now 
redoubled. H^e put to death Papinian, the Prsetorian Praefect, the 
splendid ornament of th& Roman bar ; and his massacres filled ev- 
ery part of the empire with mourning and terror. In a.d. 213 he 
left the city of Rome, and never returned thither again ; the rest 
of his reign was passed in the provinces, and wherever he came he 
indulged himself in endless murders, confiscations, and acts of vio- 
lence. "He was," says Gibbon, "the common enemy of man- 
kind." He directed a general massacre of the people of Alexan- 



322 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLII. 

dria, who had lampooned him, and viewed the scene from a secure 
post in the Temple of Serapis. To retain the affections of his 
army, he lavished upon them immense sums, the plunder of his 
empire; and he Avas at length assassinated, March 8, a.d. 217, at 
the instigation of Macrinus, one of the Pnetorian Prefects, who 
had discovered that the tyrant had planned his own death. 

Macrinus, Preefect of the Prsetorian Guard, was elected emperor 
March 11, a.d. 217, and the Senate and the provinces submitted 
without a murmur. But the new emperor was disliked by the no- 
bles on account of his humble origin, and soon offended liis army 
by endeavoring to reform their discipline. The Empress Julia 
now withdrew by a voluntary death from the sorrow which sur- 
rounded her, and the family of Severus became extinct. A rebel- 
lion broke out in the Syrian army, who proclaimed Bassianus, the 
grandson of Julia Mtesa, sister of the late empress, and who as- 
sumed the name of Antoninus, He pretended that he was the 
natural son of Caracalla. A battle took place, in which Macrinus 
was defeated, and soon after put to death ; and Elagabalus, for that 
is the name under which this monster is commonly known, ascend- 
ed the throne. 

He at once plunged into every vice. The sun was worshiped at 
Emessa under the name of Elagabalus, from whence the new em- 
peror derived his surname, having been a priest in the temple ; 
and he now introduced the lascivious rites of the Syrian deity into 
the capital of the world. A magnificent temple of the god Ela- 
gabalus was raised on the Palatine Mount, and the grave and dig- 
nified nobles of Rome were forced to take part in the ceremonies, 
clothed in long Phoenician tunics. 

It would be impossible to describe the vices of this wretched be- 
ing, who seems to have sunk to the very extreme of depravity. His 
cousin, however, Alexander Severus, as if to show that human na- 
tui-e had not wholly declined, was amiable, virtuous, and learned. 
Elagabalus was murdered by the Prcetorians March 10, a.d. 222, 
and Alexander placed upon the throne. 

Alexander Severus seems to have inclined toward the Christian 
faith, which was now very widely extended throughout the empire. 
He revoked all former edicts against the ChristiansJtaid ordered 
the words "Do unto others as you would*have them do to you" to 
be inscribed upon his palaces and other buildings. The Persian 
Empire was now arising in new strength under the house of the 
Sassanides, and a war having broken out with them, Alexander 
marched against the Persians, and gained a considerable victory. 
He returned to Rome in triumph, and entered the city in a chariot 
drawn by four elephants. Soon after, the Germans having invaded 



A.D. 192-284. PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. 323 

Gaul, he led his army to the defense of the frontier ; but, while at- 
tempting to reform the discipline of the Gallic legions, he was as- 
sassinated by a band of discontented soldiers, and Maximin, a 
Thracian peasant of great personal strength, who had risen to a 
high command in the army, Avas raised to the throne. 




Alexander Severus. 

]Maximin, a.d. 235, began his reign by massacring many of the 
friends of the late emperor, and even all those who showed any 
regret for his death. He was a fierce, ignorant barbarian, but was 
very successful in his wars against the Germans, having ravaged 
their country, and sent great numbers of them to be sold as slaves 
in Italy. He also defeated the Dacians and Sarmatians. But his 
severities produced a revolt in Africa, where the legions proclaimed 
their proconsul Gordian emperor, then in the eightieth year of his 
age. The Senate now revolted against Maximin, and ordered all 
his fi lends in Rome to be put to death. Maximin now made peace 
with the barbarians, and marched toward Italy, while, in the mean 
time, Gordian and his son were defeated and slain in Africa. The 
Senate immediately elected Papianus and Balbinus emperors, to 
whom, in order to gratify the people, they joined the younger Gor- 
dian, then only twelve years of age. Maximin entered Italy and 
besieged Aquileia, but his soldiers, weary of the length of the siege, 
put him to death, a.d. 238. The Goths on the Danube and the 
Persians in the East now assailed the empire, and at the same 
time the Prastorian Guards murdered his two associates, leaving 
Gordian sole emperor of Rome. Gordian was married to the 
daughter of Misitheus, Pra;fect of the Praetorians, an excellent min- 
ister and commander. Together they marched to the East, and 



324 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLII. 

defeated the Persians under their king Sapor, in various engage- 
ments. Misitheus now died, and Gordian appointed the Arab 
Philip his prime minister. Sapor was again defeated; but the 
Arab conspired against Gordian, his benefactor, who was assassina- 
ted in A.D. 244. 

Philip, having made peace with the Persians, returned to Rome, 
where he won the favor of the people by his mild conduct. In his 
reign the secular games were celebrated, it being reckoned one 
thousand years since the foundation of the city. Philip ruled with 
mildness, and was an enemy to persecution. In a.d. 249, how- 
ever, the Illyrian army revolted, and proclaimed their commander, 
Trajanus Decius, emperor, who defeated Philip near Verona, and 
put him to death. His son, who had remained at Rome, was slain 
by the Prgetorian Guards. 

In A.D. 250 the Goths invaded the empire. These fierce bar- 
barians came from the north of Europe, and were among the chief 
instruments of the fall of Rome. Decius, who does not seem to 
have wanted skill and courage, was finally defeated and slain by 
them, together with his son, Decius is remembered as one of the 
most cruel persecutors of the Christians. The innocent victims 
of his rage were subjected to torture, driven to hide in the wilder- 
ness among rocks and forests, and were glad to live among the 
wild beasts, more humane than man. The Bishop of Rome, Fa- 
bian, the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria, and many more em- 
inent in the Church, suffered from the unrelenting severity of this 
persecutor. 

A son of Decius, Hostilianus, together with Gallus, an experi- 
enced soldier, were now made emperors. They concluded a dis- 
graceful, but probably necessary peace with the Goths. But Hos- 
tilianus soon after died, and Gallus was defeated and slain by 
JEmilianus, who was himself assassinated, and Valerian, the Censor, 
in A.D. 253, was made emperor. A very high character is given 
of this ruler, whose reign, however, was filled with disasters. Hav- 
ing joined his son Gallienus with him, Valerian vainly sought to 
repel the attacks of innumerable enemies on every side of the em- 
pire — the Goths, the Franks, the Scythians, and the Persians. In 
a campaign against the latter Valerian was taken prisoner, and for 
nine years languished in captivity, his unnatural son making no 
effort for his liberation. 

The AUemanni, meanwhile, had entered Italy, ravaged its north- 
ern territory, and even threatened Rome. They withdrew, loaded 
with plunder. To gain allies among the barbarians, Gallienus 
now married the daughter of the king of the Marcomanni. Every 
part of the empire seems now to have been laid open to the invad- 



A.D. 192-284. PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. 325 

ers. Greece was ravaged by the Goths ; the famous Temple of 
Diana at Ephesus was burned by them, together with that fine 
city ; and Sapor, king of the Persians, overran Syria and Asia. 
He was, however, finally repelled by the brave Odenatus, who, with 
his queen Zenobia, ruled at Palmyra. 

Valerian died in captivity, while a crowd of usurpers rose in 
arras against the weak Gallienus. There were nineteen pretend- 
ers to the throne according to Gibbon, but this period is usually 
known as that of the Thirty Tyrants. This melancholy period 
was also marked by a pestilence, which raged for fifteen years in 
every province. Five thousand persons are said to have died daily 
at Rome for some time ; cities were depopulated, and the number 
of the human species must have sensibly declined. A famine pre- 
ceded and attended the pestilence, earthquakes were common, and 
the third century is, no doubt, the most melancholy period in the 
history of Europe. 

Gallienus Avas murdered in a.d. 268, and was succeeded by Mar- 
cus Aurelius Claudius, who died of a pestilence which had broken 
out in his army in Egypt. Aurelian, a native of Pannonia, was 
the next emperor. His reign lasted four years and nine months, 
but was filled with remarkable events. He abandoned Dacia to 
the Goths, defeated the Alemanni, and drove them out of Italy. 
But he foresaw the danger of future invasions, and surrounded 
Rome with new walls about twenty-one miles in extent. In a.d. 
272 he marched against Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who ventm-ed 
to defy the power of Rome. This illustrious woman was not only 
learned, beautiful, and an agreeable writer, but governed the East 
for five years with discretion and success. Aurelian was amazed 
at her warlike preparations upon the fall of Palmyra, and treated 
her beautiful city with lenity ; but the Palmyrenians having re- 
belled, the city was taken by storm, and its people put to death. 
The ruins of Palmyra are still among the most remarkable of the 
ancient world. 

Aurelian now returned to Rome to celebrate his triumph. The 
spoils of every climate were borne before him ; his captives were 
from Germany, Syria, and Egypt, and among them were the Em- 
peror Tetricus and the beautiful Zenobia, bound with fetters of 
gold. A whole day was consumed in the passage of the triumphal 
procession through the streets of Rome. But Aurelian, who was 
illiterate, unpolished, and severe, failed to win the regard of his 
people, and was plainly more at his ease at the head of his army 
than in the cultivated society of Rome. He returned, therefore, 
to the East, where he died, as was usual Avith so many of the em- 



326 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLH. 

perors, by the hand of an assassin, in a.d. 275. He restored vigor 
to the empire, and preserved it from instant destruction. 

The army, filled with sorrow for the loss of the emperor, re- 
venged his death by tearing his assassin in pieces ; and they then 
wrote a respectful letter to the Senate, asking the Senators to se- 
lect his successor. The Senate, however, passed a decree that the 
army should name the new emperor. The soldiers, in their turn, 
refused, and thus for eight months an interregnum prevailed while 
this friendly contest continued. At last the Senate appointed the 
virtuous Tacitus, who claimed a descent from his namesake, the 
famous historian. Tacitus, however, who was seventy years old, 
sank under the hardships of his first campaign, and died a.d. 276, 
at Tyania, in Cappadocia. 

His brother Florian then ascended the throne, but was defeated 
and put to death by Probus, the best soldier of the age, who, in six 
years, once more repelled the barbarians from every part of the 
empire. He delivered Gaul from the ravages of the Germans, 
pursued them across the Rhine, and every where defeated them. 
He suppressed, also, several insurrections, and employed his sol- 
diers in various useful works. But at length, weary of these la- 
bors, they put Probus to death, a.d. 282. 

Carus, the next emperor, was singularly frugal in his mode of 
life. When the Persian embassadors visited him in his tent they 
found him sitting upon the grass, clothed in a coarse robe, and eat- 
ing his supper of bacon and hard pease. Carus gained many vic- 
tories over the Persians, but died suddenly in a.d. 283. His two 
sons, Carinus and Numerian, succeeded him, but were soon assas- 
sinated, giving place to the more famous Diocletian. 




The (Jourt-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spalatro. 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE's DEATH, A.D. 337. 

Diocletian began to reign a.d. 284, and once more revived the 
vigor of the declining empire, which now seemed more than ever 
to depend for its existence upon the qualities of a single ruler. It 
seems, indeed, to have required an intellect of no common order to 
preserve the unity of the empire, composed of so many diiferent 
nations, of territories separated by such vast distances, and threat- 
ened on every side by innumerable foes ; but, of all his contempo- 
raries, Diocletian was best suited to this task. His parents had been 
the slaves of a Roman Senator, and he had himself risen from this 
low station to the highest positions in the army. He acted with 
generosity toward the servants of the former emperor, not only suf- 
fering them to remain in safety under his rule, but even to retain 



328 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLin. 

their offices. Finding the empire too large to be governed by a 
single ruler, he selected as his colleague Maximian, a brave, but 
fierce and ignorant soldier, who, like himself, had risen to a high 
rank in the army. Maximian, however, always admitted the in- 
tellectual superiority of Diocletian. The emperor assumed the ti- 
tle of Jovius, and Maximian that of Herculius. Diocletian also 
appointed two C£esars, Constantius and Galerius, to aid him in the 
defense of the empire, which was divided between the four princes. 
Gaul, Spain, and Britain were intrusted to the care of Constantius, 
Italy and Africa to Maximian, Galerius commanded the legions on 
the Danube, while Diocletian reserved for himself Thrace, Egypt, 
and- Asia. The four rulers seemed to have labored together in 
harmony, but the establishment of four courts in different parts of 
the empire obliged them to increase the taxes, and every province 
suffered under new impositions. Even Italy, which had ahvays 
been favored in this particular, was now heavily burdened, and ev- 
ery where lands were abandoned and left uncultivated because their 
owners could not pay the taxes and impositions. In a.d. 287 a 
rebellion occurred in Gaul, which was suppressed by Maximian ; 
soon after, Carausius, having become master of Britain, and pos- 
sessing a considerable fleet, defied the power of the emperor ; but 
when Constantius was appointed Cajsar he prepared to reduce the 
island to subjection. In a.d. 294 Carausius was put to death by 
Allectus, a new usurper. Constantius now crossed the Channel 
and recovered the island, which, after a separation of ten years, 
was once more reunited, to the empire. During this reign the 
Goths, Vandals, and other northern barbarians wasted their strength 
in destructive contests with each other ; but whenever, in intervals 
of peace, they invaded the Roman territory, they were driven back 
by the valor of the two Cajsars. Maximian, in the mean time, 
subdued a revolt in Africa ; and Diocletian himself suppressed one 
of those seditions to which Egypt was constantly exposed. The 
emperor besieged Alexandria for eight months, cut off the aque- 
ducts which conveyed water to the city, and, having taken it, put 
many thousands of its citizens to death. One remarkable edict 
which he now published forbade the study of alchemy in Egypt, 
and ordered all books upon that subject to be burned. He also 
made a treaty with the Nubians, in order to protect the frontiers 
of Egypt. 

It gives us, indeed, a clear view of the immense extent of the 
Roman power when we reflect that its commanders were, almost 
at the same moment, struggling successfully against its enemies in 
Africa, Britain, Germany, and the East. A war with Persia now 
arose, in w^hich Galerius was at first defeated, a.d. 290. But the 



A.D. 284-337. DIOCLETIAN TO CONSTANTINE. 329 

next year he passed through the mountains of Armenia at the head 
of twenty-five thousand chosen men, and, having surprised the Per- 
sian army in the night, slaughtered great numbers of them ; the 
booty, too, was immense. A barbarian soldier, finding a bag of 
shining leather filled with pearls, threw away the contents and pre- 
served the bag ; and the uncultivated savages gathered a vast spoil 
from the tents of the Persians. Galerius, having taken prisoners 
several of the wives and children of the Persian monarch Narses, 
treated them with such tenderness and respect that Narses made 
peace. Mesopotamia was now added to the empire, being taken 
from the King of Armenia, who received in its place a considera- 
ble Persian province. 

The two emperors returned to Rome and celebrated their triumph 
November 20, a.d. 303, the last spectacle of that kind which the 
world has witnessed. Romulus, more than a thousand years be- 
fore, had ascended the Capitoline Mount on foot, bearing in his 
arms the spoil of Acron, and his example had been follovved by a 
long line of Roman heroes. In the last triumph, the two emperors 
were attended by the spoils of Africa and Britain, of the East and 
the West. 

^ During this reign also occurred the last persecution of the Chris- 
tians, who were soon to become the masters of the empire. It be- 
gan A.D. 303, and continued for ten years; and such multitudes of 
the Christians perished that the emperors boasted that they had 
wholly extirpated the sect ! 

Diocletian introduced an Eastern pomp into his court, assumed 
the titles of "Lord and Emperor," and wore a diadem set with 
pearls. His robes were of silk and gold. He required his subjects 
to prostrate themselves before him, and to adore him as a divinity. 

In A.D. 305, like Charles V., he resolved to abdicate his power, 
having persuaded his colleague Maximian to do the same : he lived 
in retirement for nine years, and amused himself cultivating his gar- 
den.^ "I wish you would come to Salona" (Spalatro), he wrote to 
Maximian, who sought to draw him from his retirement, "and see 
the cabbages I have planted : you would never again mention to me 
the name of empire." But the close of his life was embittered by 
the ingratitude of Constantine andLicinius, and the dangers of the 
empire. It is not known whether he died by disease or by his own 
hand. 

Upon the abdication of Diocletian and his colleague, the two 
Cffisars, Constantius and Galerius, assumed the title of Augustus. 
Constantius retained his former provinces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. 
He was moderate, amiable, and lived with Roman simplicity. Ga- 
lerius, on the other hand, was haughty, severe, and ambitious. He 



330 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



Chap. XLIII. 



had married a daughter of Diocletian, and hoped that the death of 
Constantius would soon leave him the sole emperor of Rome. The 
two emperors now appointed two Caesars, Maximin and Severus, 
the first nephew to Galerius, and the latter devoted to his interests. 
Constantius died at York, in Britain, a.d. 306, and his son Constan- 
tine was proclaimed Augustus by the soldiers. 




Constantine and Faudta. 



This prince, afterward Constantine the Great, was the son of Con- 
stantius and Helena, who was said to have been the daughter of an 
inn-keeper. When Constantius became Casar he divorced Helena, 
and her son was, in a measure, neglected. Constantine, however, 
soon distinguished himself as a soldier, and won the affection of the 
army. ^ In appearance he was tall, dignified, and pleasing ; he ex- 
celled in all military exercises, was modest, prudent, and well in- 
formed. He soon attracted the jealousy of Galerius, who would 
have put him to death had he not escaped to his father in Britain ; 
and now Galerius refused to allow him any higher title than that^ 
of Cajsar. 

Maxentius, the son of the abdicated emperor Maximian, was also 
proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers, and prevailed upon his father 
once more to ascend the throne. Severus, who marched against 
them, was defeated and put to death; and Constantine now mar- 
ried Fausta, the daughter of Maximian. Galerius led a large army 
from the East, but was repulsed from Rome and retreated, leaving 
Maximian and his son masters of the capital. Galerius next asso- 



A.D. 284-337. DIOCLETIAN TO CONSTANTINE. 



331 



dated Licinius with him in his power, and there were now six sover- 
eigns upon the throne. 

In A.D. 310, however, Maxiniian, having conspired against the 
life of Constantine, was put to deatli ; Gulevius died the next year; 
in A.D, 312 Maxentius fell before the arms of Constantine, and was 
drowned in the Tiber while attempting to make his escape. It was 
during this campaign that Constantine is said to have seen the mi- 
raculous cross in the heavens. 

The Roman Senate paid unusual honors to Constantine ; games" 
and festivals were instituted in memory of his victory over Maxen- 
tius, and a triumphal arch was erected, whose imperfect architecture 
shows the decline of ancient taste. The Arch of Trajan was strip- 
ped of its ornaments to adorn that of Constantine. 




Arch of Coustantine. 



The new emperor introduced good oi'der into the administration 
of the West, revived the authority of the Senate, and disbanded the 
Praetorian Guards ; he revoked the edicts against the Christians, 
and paid unusual deference to the bishops and saints of the Church. 
The Emperor Licinius, who had married his sister, in a.d. 313 de- 
feated and put to death Maximin, so that the empire was now 
shared between Constantine and Licinius. 

The former now summoned a council of bishops at Aries to sup- 
press the heresy of the Donatists, but, before it met, was forced to 
march against Licinius, who had conspired against him. Licinius 
was defeated in two battles, and forced to give up a large part of 
his dominions to his conqueror. Constantine next defeated the 



332 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLUI. 

Goths and Sarmatge. Licinius had assumed the defense of Pagan- 
ism, while Constautine raised the standard of the Cross, The last 
struggle between them took place near Adrianople ; the Pagan army 
was defeated and put to flight, and in a.i>. 321 Licinius was put to 
death. Thus Constantino reigned alone over the empire of Au- 
gustus. 

At the famous Council of Nice, which met in a.d. 325, the doc- 
trine of the Trinity was established, Arianism condemned, and at 
the same time the emperor was, in effect, acknowledged to be the 
spiritual head of the Church. But an event now occurred which 
must have destroyed forever the happiness of Constantine. He was 
induced to put to death his virtuous son Crispus, through the false 
accusations of his wife Fausta, and when afterward he discovered 
the falseness of the charges made against Crispus, he directed Faus- 
ta and her accomplices to be slain. 

Rome, which had so long been the capital of the world, was now 
to descend from that proud position and become a provincial city. 
When Constantine returned to Rome after the Council of Nice, he 
found himself assailed with insults and execrations. The Senate 
and the people of the capital saw with horror the destroyer of their 
national faith, and they looked upon Constantine as accursed by the 
gods. The execution of his wife and son soon after increased the 
ill feeling against the emperor, and Constantine probably resolved 
to abandon a city upon which he had bestowed so many favors, and 
which had repaid him with such ingratitude. He was conscious, 
too, that Rome, seated in the heart of Italy, was no longer a con- 
venient capital for his empire, and he therefore resolved to build a 
new city on the site of ancient Byzantium. The Bosphoi'us, a nar- 
row strait, connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora ; and 
here, on a triangular piece of ground, inclosing on one side an ex- 
cellent harboi", Constantine laid the foundations of his ca])ital. It 
was situated in the forty-first degree of latitude, possessed a tem- 
perate climate, and a fertile territory around it ; while, being placed 
on the confines of both Europe and Asia, it commanded the two di- 
visions of the empire. 

Constantinople was adorned with all the architectural elegance 
of the age, but the arts of sculpture and of decoration had so de- 
clined that Constantine was forced to rob the cities of Greece of 
their finest works in order to supply the deficiencies of his own art- 
ists : Athens and Asia were despoiled to adorn his semi-barbarous 
capital. The city was provided with a forum, in which was placed 
a column of porphyry upon a white marble base, in all one hundred 
and twenty feet high, upon which stood a bronze figure of Apollo. 
A hippodrome, or .circus of great size, and the baths and pleasure- 



A.D. 284-337. DIOCLETIAN TO CONSTANTINE. 



333 




Map of Propontis, Hellespont, Bosphorus. 

grounds, recalled the memory of those of Rome. Schools and the- 
atres, aqueducts, fourteen churches, fourteen palaces, and a great 
number of magnificent private houses, added to the splendor of the 
new city. Constantine designed, it is said, to have called his cap- 
ital the SECOND OR NEW^ RoME, but his own name has always been 
preferred. 




Map of Constantinople. 

Having thus provided a capital, Constantine next began to form 
a new constitution for his empire ; he established, therefore, a com- 



334 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLIII. 

plete despotism, all the poAver being lodged in the emperor, and all 
honors and titles being conferred by him alone. The name of Con- 
sul was still preserved, these officers being yearly appointed by the 
emperor ; but we now notice the titles of Count and Dulce joined 
with those of Qutestors and Proconsuls. All the civil magistrates 
were taken from the legal profession. The law was now the most 
honorable of the professions, and the law school at Berytus, in Phoe- 
nicia, had flourished since the reign of Alexander Severus. 

The Roman Empire was divided into four great prefectures, 
which were themselves subdivided into dioceses and provinces. 
The prsefectures were named that of the East, of lilyricum, of Italy, 
and of Gaul. A Prsetorian Prefect had charge of each prefecture, 
and i-egulated its civil government ; took care of the roads, ports, 
granaries, manufactures, coinage ; was the supreme legal magis- 
trate, from whose decision tliere was no appeal. Rome and Con- 
stantinople had their own Prefects, whose courts took the place of 
those of the ancient Pretors, while a considerable police force pre- 
served the quiet of each city. The magistrates of the empire were 
divided into three classes, the Illustrissimi, or illustrious; the Spec- 
tabiles, or respectable ; and the Clarissimi, or the honorable. 

Constantine also made Cliristianity the established religion of 
the state, and appropriated a large portion of the revenues of the 
cities to the support of the churches and the clergy. His standing 
army was very large, but the ranks were now filled chiefly by bar- 
barians, the Roman youth having lost all taste for arms. It is said 
the young men of Italy were in the habit of cutting off' the fingers 
of the right hand in order to unfit themselves for military service. 

In order to support this extensive system, Constantine was forced 
to impose heavy taxes ui;on his people. Every year the emperor 
subscribed with his own hand, rn purple ink, the indiction^ or tax 
levy of each diocese, which was set up in its principal city, and 
when this proved insufficient, an additional tax, or superindiction, 
was imposed. Lands, cattle, and slaves were all heavily taxed, 
and the declining agriculture of the empire was finally ruined by 
the exorbitant demands of the state. In Campania alone, once the 
most fertile part of Italy, one eighth of the Avhole province lay un- 
cultivated, and the condition of Gaul seems to have been no better. 
Besides this, merchants, manufacturers, mechanics, and citizens 
were taxed beyond their power of endurance, while those who fail- 
ed to pay were shut up in prison. Every fourth year these taxes 
on industry were levied, a period to which the people looked for- 
ward with terror and lamentation. Gifts were also demanded from 
the cities or provinces on various occasions, such as the accession 
of an emperor, the birth of an emperor's heir, the free gift of the 



A.D. 284-337. DIOCLETIAN TO CONSTAXTINE. 335 

city of Rome, for example, being fixed at about three hundred thou- 
sand dollars ; and, in fine, the imperial despotism reduced the peo- 
ple to want, and hastened, even more than the inroads of the bar- 
barians, the destruction of civil society. 

Constantine in his old age adopted the luxury and pomp which 
Diocletian introduced from the East ; h*e wore fiilse hair of various 
colors carefully arranged, a diadem of costly gems, and a robe of 
silk embroidered with flowers of gold. His family, at an earlier 
period, consisted of Crispns, a son by his first wife Minervina, and 
the three sons of Fausta, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. 
Besides these there were three daughters. Crispus, however, who 
was beloved by the people and the army, excited the jealousy of 
Fausta. Constantine was led to believe that his son was engaged 
in a conspiracy against his life, and Crispus was executed by his 
father's orders, together Avith Caesar Licinius, the son of Constan- 
tine's favorite sister, Helena, the aged mother of Constantine, un- 
dertook to avenge her grandson. Fausta was finally proved to be 
unfaithful to her husband, and put to death, with many of her friends 
and followers. These fearful scenes within the palace recalled to 
the Roman people the memory of Nero and Caligula. 

The three sons of Fausta were now the heirs of the throne, and, 
with their two cousins, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, were careful- 
ly instructed by Christian professors, Greek philosophers, and Ro- 
man jurisconsults, the emperor himself teaching them the science 
of government and of man. They also studied the art of war in 
defending the frontiers of the empire; but no important war dis- 
turbed the last fourteen years of this reign. Constantine reigned 
thirty years, the longest period of any since Augustus; and he died 
May 22, a.d. 387, at his palace at Nicomedia, aged sixty-four years. 

Constantine, although professing the Christain faith, was not bap- 
tized until a short time before his death, when he received that sol- 
emn rite with many professions of penitence, and of a desire to live 
in future according to the precepts of religion. * He seems to have 
possessed many excellent qualities, was brave, active, and untiring, 
ruled with firmness, and gave a large portion of his time to the 
cares of state. 




Julian the Apostate, 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE, A.D. 337, TO KOMULUS AU- 
GUSTULUS, A.D. 476. 

The three sons of the late emperor, Constantine, Constantius, 
and Constans, as soon as their father was dead, put to death their 
two cousins, Hannibalianus and Dalmatius, with many more of 
their relatives ; only Gallus and Julian, the children of Julius Con- 
stantius, being leff^live. They then divided the empire, a.d. 337, 
Constantine, the elder, retaining the new capital, Constans receiv- 
ing the western provinces, while to Constantius was left Syria and 
the East. Sapor, king of Persia, invaded the Eastern provinces, 
and defeated the Romans in various battles. Meanwhile a quar- 
rel broke out between Constantine and Constans, and the former, 
having invaded his brother's provinces, was defeated and slain, 
A.D. 350. Ten years afterward Constans was himself put to death 
by Magnentius, an ambitious soldier, who at once assumed the 
name of emperor. Constantius marched against him, but found 
that Vetranio, prsefect of Illyricum, had joined him, instigated by 
the Princess Constantina. He finally, liowever, defeated Magnen- 



A.D. 337-476. CONSTANTINE TO R. AUGUSTULUS. 337 

tius, and deposed the aged Vetranio, and thus became the master 
of Rome. Having recalled Gallus and Julian from banishment, 
the emperor gave them the title of Csesars. Gallus proved unfit 
for public affairs, while Julian won the esteem of all men by his 
conduct and valor. He drove the Germans out of Gaul, which 
they had invaded, and even crossed the Rhine, in imitation of Ju- 
lius Cajsar. 

Constantius now became jealous of the rising fame of Julian, 
who was beloved by the Western legions, and commanded him to 
send the finest part of his army to the East. Julian prepared to 
obey, but the soldiers rose in revolt, proclaiming him Julian Au- 
gustus, He sent messengers to the emperor demanding the rec- 
ognition of his election ; but war could not long be averted. Ju- 
lian abjured Christianity, which he had hitherto professed, together 
with his allegiance to the emperor, and led a small army of well- 
chosen soldiers against his rival. Meantime Constantius, in a.d. 
361, November 3d, died of a fever in Syria, while Julian entered 
Constantinople December 11th, amid the applause of the people. 
He was acknowledged emperor. He was now in his thirty-second 
year, in many particulars the most remarkable of the second Fla- 
vian family. 

Julian had been educated by the Platonic philosophers, and re- 
solved to restore the ancient form of religion. He sacrificed to the 
pagan gods, rebuilt their temples, revived the practice of augury, 
or divination, and vainly strove to impose upon the human mind a 
superstition which it had just thrown off. In order to mortify the 
Christians, he resolved to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, and 
restore the Jews to their ancient seat. But some natural phenom- 
enon interposed ; the workmen were driven away by balls of fire, 
and Julian abandoned his design. 

Except this unphilosophical hostility toward the Christians, 
whose faith he had once professed, Julian seems to have made a 
sincere attempt to improve the condition of his people. He lived 
with frugality, rewarded merit, and encouraged learning, except 
where it was employed in the defense of Christianity. He was 
also successful in his wars against the Germans and the Persians, 
but at length was defeated by the latter, and was killed a.d. 363, 
June 2Gth. 

Julian affected in his dress and manners the rudeness and indif- 
ference of a philosopher, was free from vice, possessed considerable 
learning, and wrote a work of some value, in which he compared 
and studied the characters of the long line of his predecessors. 

Jovian was now proclaimed emperor by the Eastern army, and 
concluded a dishonorable peace with the Persians. He next pub- 
Y 



338 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLIV. 

lished an edict restoring Christianity, but was found dead in his 
bed, A.D. 364. 

Valentinian was next chosen emperor, who gave the Eastern 
provinces to his brother Valens. He made Milan the seat of his 
own government, while Valens reigned at Constantinople ; and 
the empire was from this time divided into the Eastei-n and the 
Western. The whole of the Western world was distressed by the 
invasion of barbarous tribes, and Valentinian now made his son 
Gratian his heir, in order to remove all doubt as to the succession. 
The Saxon pii-ates, meantime, harassed all the coasts of Gaul, 
while Britain was invaded by the Picts and Scots. Theodosius, 
however, defeated them, and was soon after sent to quell an insur- 
rection in Africa. This he succeeded in doing, when Valentinian 
died suddenly, a.d. 375. 

Valens, his brother, meantime had suppressed a rebellion in the 
East, led by Procopius ; and then, having become an Arian, com- 
menced a severe persecution of the orthodox, of whom no fewer 
than eighty ecclesiastics were put to death for supporting the elec- 
tion of a bishop of their own faith at Constantinople. Valens also 
succeeded in repelling the attacks of the Persians. 

In the West Valentinian had been succeeded by his sons Gratian 
and Valentinian II. The brave Theodosius, meanwhile, whose 
valor had preserved the peace of the nation, was executed by order 
of Gratian, and soon after the Huns appeared upon the Danube. 
These savages are thought to have entered Europe from Tartary. 
Their faces wei'e artificially flattened and their beards plucked out. 
They left the cultivation of their fields to the women or slaves, 
and devoted their lives to warfare. A wandering race, they built 
no cities nor houses, and never slept beneath a roof. They lived 
upon horseback. The Huns first attacked their fellow-barbarians, 
the Ostrogoths, and made a fearful carnage, putting all the women 
and children to death. 

The Gothic nation now begged permission from the Romans to 
cross the Danube, and settle within the Roman territory. Their 
request was granted, upon condition that they should surrender all 
their arms ; but this condition was imperfectly fulfilled. The cel- 
ebrated Bishop Ulphilas about this time converted the Goths to 
Arianism, invented a Gothic alphabet, and infused among the Goths 
a hatred for the Catholic faith, which served to increase their zeal 
in all their future conflicts with the Romans. Ill-treated by the 
Roman commissioners who had been sent by the Emperor Valens 
to superintend their settlement, the Goths marched against Con- 
stantinople. Valens wrote to Gratian for aid, and the latter, al- 
though his own dominions were harassed by the Germans, marched 



A.D. 337-476. CONSTANTINE TO R. AUGUSTULUS. 339 

to the aid of his uncle, but died at Sirmium. Valens encountered 
Fritigern, the Gothic leader, near Adrianople, in a.d. 378, and was 
defeated and slain. Nearly the whole of the Roman army was 
destroyed upon this fatal field. 

Gratian now chose as his colleague Theodosius, the son of the 
former brave commander of that name, and Theodosius for a time 
restored the Roman empire. He defeated the Goths, won their af- 
fections by his clemency, and induced them to protect the frontiers 
of the Danube. Gratian was defeated and put to death, a.d. 383, 
by a usurper, Maximus, who also deprived Valentinian II. of his 
province of Italy. Theodosius, however, defeated the usurper in 
A.D. 388, and generously restored Valentinian to his throne. Val- 
entinian was murdered by a Frank, Arbogastes, in a.d. 392, but 
Theodosius marched against him, and defeated and destroyed the 
rebels Arbogastes and Eugenius, a.d. 394. 

Theodosius the Great, who had thus reunited the empire under 
his own sway, belonged to the orthodox faith, and sought to sup- 
press Arianism, as well as many other heresies which had crept 
into the Christian Church. He was a prudent ruler, and resisted 
successfully the inroads of the barbarians. He divided his empire 
between his two sons, Honorius and Arcadius, the former becoming 
Emperor of the West, the latter, who was the elder, succeeding his 
father at Constantinople ; and Theodosius soon after died, lament- 
ed by his subjects. Rufinus, who became the chief minister of Ar- 
cadius, oppressed and plundered the Eastern empire. He was uni- 
versally hated by the people. Stilicho, on the other hand, who 
also became the chief minister of Honorius, was a very different 
character. He was a brave and active commander, and restored 
the former glory of the Roman arms. His chief opponent was the 
famous Alaric, who now united the Gothic forces under his own 
command, and, having penetrated into Greece, ravaged and deso- 
lated that unhappy country. The barbarians plundered Athens, 
Corinth, Sparta, and Argos ; and those cities, once so renowned 
for valor, seemed to offer him no resistance, so fallen was the an- 
cient spirit of the Greeks. Stilicho, however, pursued Alaric into 
Elis, and would, perhaps, have totally destroyed the barbarians had 
not the feeble Arcadius not only made peace with Alaric, but ap- 
pointed him to the command of Illyricum. Alaric, not long after, 
invaded Italy, but was defeated by his rival. In a.d. 403 he again 
invaded Italy, and was induced to retreat by a considerable bribe. 

The Emperor Honorius removed from Rome to Ravenna, where 
he believed himself more secure ; and when a new horde of barba- 
rians invaded Italy in a.d. 406, and had besieged Florence, they 
were totally defeated and destroyed by Stilicho. A portion of the 



340 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLIV. 

invaders escaped into Gaul, where they committed great ravages, 
until Constantine, the governor of Britain, was proclaimed empei"- 
or, who wrested Gaul and Spain from the dominion of Honorius. 
This weak prince, in a.d. 408, consented to the murder of Stilicho. 
His new minister, Olympius, directed the slaughter of the families 
of the barbarians throughout Italy, a cruelty which was fearfully 
avenged. 

Alaric, the scourge of Rome, marched into Italy, and in a.d. 408 
besieged the capital. Pestilence and famine soon raged within the 
walls of Rome, until the Senate purchased a respite from their ca- 
lamities by an enormous ransom. Honorius refused to confirm 
the treaty, and the next year Alaric once more appeared before the 
city. He took possession of Ostia, the port of Rome, reduced the 
Senate to surrender, and proclaimed Attalus emperor. Honorius 
still refusing to yield to his demands, Alaric resolved to punish 
Rome for the vices of its emperor. The sack of that city now 
followed, one of the most fearful tragedies in history. 

No foreign enemy had appeared before the gates of Rome since 
the invasion of Hannibal, until Alaric made his successful inroad 
into Italy. The city still retained all that magnificence with which 
it had been invested by the emperors. The Colosseum, the baths, 
the aqueducts, the palaces of the Senators, the public gardens, and 
the ancient temples, still remained ; but its people were lost in 
luxury and vice. Learning was no longer respected among them, 
the gamester or the cook being more esteemed than philosophers or 
poets ; and the luxurious Senators passed their lives in frivolous 
and degrading amusements. The indolent people were maintained 
by a daily distribution of bread, baked in the public ovens ; and 
oil, wine, and bacon were also provided for them during a part of 
the year. The public baths were open to the people, and for a 
small copper coin they might enter those scenes of luxury where 
the walls were incrusted with precious marble, and perpetual 
streams of hot water flowed from silver tubes. From the bath 
they passed to the Circus, where, although the combats of gladia- 
tors had been suppressed by Christian princes, a succession of 
amusements was still provided. In this manner the luxurious no- 
bles and people of Rome passed their tranquil, inglorious lives. 

The wealth of the capital was such as might well attract the 
barbarous invader. The palaces of the Senators were filled with 
gold and silver ornaments, and the churches had been enriched by 
the contributions of pious worshipers. Many of the nobles pos- 
sessed estates which produced several hundred thousand dollars a 
year, and the wealth of the world was gathered within the walls of 
its capital. 



A.D. 337-476. CONSTANTINE TO R AUGUSTULUS. 341 

We have no means of estimating accurately the population of 
Home. Its walls embraced a circuit of twenty-one miles, and it 
is probable that nearly a million of people were contained within 
the walls and the suburbs. 

Such was the condition of Rome when it was about to fall before 
the arms of the barbarians. August 24th, a.d. 410, Alaric ap- 
proached the city, and the gates being opened to him by some 
Gothic slaves, his troops began at night a fearful scene of pillage 
and destruction. Men, women, and children were involved in a 
general massacre ; nobles and plebeians suffered under a common 
fate. The Goths, as they entered, set fire to the houses in order 
to light their path, and the flames consumed a large part of the 
city. Great numbers of the citizens were driven away in hordes to 
be sold as slaves ; others escaped to Africa, or to the islands on the 
coast of Italy, where the Goths, having no ships, were unable to fol- 
low them. But Alaric, who was an Arian, spared the churches of 
Rome, and was anxious to save the city from destruction. From 
this time, however, a.d. 410, began that rapid decay which soon 
converted Rome into a heap of ruins. 

Alaric, after six days given to plunder, marched out of the city, 
to the southern part of Italy, where he died. His body was buried 
under the waters of a rivulet, which was turned from its course in 
order to prepare his tomb ; and, the waters being once more led 
back to their channel, the captives who had performed the labor 
were put to death, that the Romans might never discover the re- 
mains of their Gothic scourge. 

The brother of Alaric, Adolphus, who succeeded him, was mar- 
ried to the Princess Placidia, and now became the chief ally of 
Honorius. He restored Gaul to the empire, but was murdered 
while upon an expedition into Spain. Wallia, the next Gothic 
king, reduced all Spain and the eastern part of Gaul under the 
yoke of the Visigoths. The empire of the West was now rapidly 
dismembei-ed. The Franks and Burgundians took possession of 
Gaul. Britain, too, was from this time abandoned by the Romans, 
and was afterward, in a.d. 448, overrun and conquered by the An- 
gles and the Saxons, and thus the two great races, the English 
and the French, began. 

Arcadius, the Eastern emperor, governed by his minister, the 
eunuch Eutropius, and by the Empress Eudoxia, was led into many 
cruelties ; and St. Chrysostom, the famous bishop and orator, was 
one of the illustrious victims of their persecutions, Arcadius died 
in A.D. 408, and was succeeded by the young Theodosius, who Avas 
controlled in all his measures by his sister Pulcheria, and for forty 
vears Pulcheria ruled the East with uncommon abilitv. Honorius 



342 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLIV. 

died in a.d. 423, when Valentinian III., son of Placidia, his sister, 
was made Emperor of the West. He was wholly governed by his 
mother, and thus Placidia and Pulcheria ruled over the civilized 
world. 

The Vandals, who had settled in the province of Andalusia, in 
Spain, were invited into Africa by Count Boniface, who had been 
led into this act of treachery by the intrigues of his rival -^tius. 
Genseric, the Vandal king, conquered Africa, although Boniface, 
repenting of his conduct, endeavored to recover the province ; and 
thus Italy was now threatened on the south by the Vandal power 
in Africa. 

The Huns, meantime, who had been detained upon the upper 
side of the Danube, now crossed that river, being united under the 
control of Attila, and became the terror of the civilized world. 
Attila first threatened an attack upon the Eastern empire, but at 
length turned his arms against the West. He was defeated by 
^tius and the Visigoths in a.d. 451, but the next year he invaded 
Italy, demanded the Princess Honoria in marriage, and destroyed 
many of the Italian cities. He spared the city of Rome, however, 
and finally died in a.d. 453. His death alone saved the empire 
from complete ruin. 

Valentinian III., who had put to death the brave commander 
^tius, was murdered by the patrician Maximus in a.d. 455. The 
Vandals now besieged and plundered Rome, and sold many thou- 
sands of the citizens as slaves. Avitus, a Gaul, next became em- 
peror by the influence of Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, but was 
soon deposed by Count Ricimer, and was followed by Majorian, a 
man of merit, who endeavored to reform the nation. He died in 
a.d. 461. Count Ricimer then declared Severus emperor, but was 
forced to apply for aid against the Vandals to the court of Con- 
stantinople, where Leo was now emperor. Leo appointed Anthe- 
mius to the throne of the West, and sent an army against the Van- 
dals in Africa, which was totally defeated. Ricimer then deposed 
Anthemius, and declared Olybrius emperor ; but both Ricimer and 
Olybrius died in a.d. 472. Leo next appointed Julius Nepos his 
colleague. Glycerius, an obscure soldier, made an effort to obtain 
the throne, but yielded to Nepos, and became Bishop of Salona. 
Orestes, who had succeeded Count Ricimer as commander of the 
barbarian mercenaries, deprived Nepos of his throne ; and Nepos, 
having fled into Dalmatia, was executed by his old rival Glycerius. 

Orestes gave the throne to his son Romulus, to whom he also 
gave the title of Augustus, which was afterward changed by com- 
mon consent to Augustulus. But Odoacer, the leader of the Ger- 
man tribes, put Orestes to death, sent Augustulus into banishment, 



A.D. 337-476. CONSTANTINE TO R. AUGUSTULUS. 343 

with a pension for his support, and, having abolished the title of 
emperor, in a.d. 476 declared himself Kinj^ of Italy. 

liomulus Augustus was the last emperor of the West, and bore 
the name of the founder of the monarchy as well as of the empire, 
a singular circumstance. 

In this manner fell the Roman Empire, a noble fabric, which its 
founder hoped would endure forever. Its destruction, however, 
gave rise to the various kingdoms and states of modern Europe, 
and thus civilization and Christianity, which might have remained 
confined to the shores of the Mediterranean, have been spread over 
a large portion of the world. 



CHAPTER XLV. 

ROMAN LITERATURE TINDER THE EMPIRE. A.D. 14-476. 

Roman literature, which had risen to its highest excellence un- 
der Augustus, declined rapidly under his successors, and was final- 
ly lost with the fall of the Western empire. The language was no 
longer pure, and neither prose nor poetry retained the harmony and 
elegance of the Augustan age. A certain sadness and discontent, 
which marks all the later literature, forms also a striking contrast 
with the cheerful tone of the earlier writers. Every part of the 
empire, however, abounded with men of letters, and a high degree 
of mental cultivation seems every where to have prevailed. 

Epic poetry continued to flourish, and Virgil found many imita- 
tors. The best epic writer of this period was M. Annseus Lucanus, 
who was born at Corduba, in Spain, in the year a.d. 38. Lucan 
was educated at Rome under the Stoic Cornutus, and was intro- 
duced by his uncle Seneca to the Emperor Nero. Having for a 
time enjoyed the patronage of Nero, he at length became the ob- 
ject of his jealousy and hatred, was accused of having taken part 
in Piso's conspiracy, and was condemned to death. He was allow- 
ed, as a favor, to put an end to his own life, and thus died, a.d. 65. 
Although so young, for he was scarcely twenty-seven years of age, 
Lucan, besides several shorter poems, produced the Pharsalia, an 
epic, of which he finished only ten books : it relates the wars be- 
tween Caesar and Pompey, and contains many fine thoughts and 
striking images. He evidently prefers Pompey to Caesar, and pos- 
sessed a strong love for liberty, which lends vigor to his verses. 
His language is pure, his rhythm often harmonious, but he never 
attains the singular delicacy and sweetness of his master, Virgil. 

C. Silius Italicus, the place of whose birth is unknown, also lived 
during the reign of Nero, and was Consul in the year a.d. 68. He 
was a Stoic, and put an end to his own life in the year a.d. 100, 
when he was about seventy-five years of age. His poem, the Punica, 
is an account of the second Punic "War in verse, and is chiefly val- 
uable to the historical student. He had little inventive power, and 
takes but a low rank in poetry. 

P. Papinius Statins, the son of the teacher of the Emperor Do- 
mitian, was carefully educated at Rome, and became renowned at 
an early age for his poetical talents. He spent the last years of his 
life at Naples, which was also the place of his birth, and died there 



A.D. 14-476. ROMAN LITERATURE. 345 

in the year a.d. 96. He wrote the Thebaic, in twelve parts ; the 
Achilleis, in two books ; the Sylvse, a collection of poems ; a trag- 
edy, and other works. He seems to have borrowed much from ear- 
lierGreek writers, but was possessed of considerable poetical fervor. 
Claudius Claudianus, who lived under Theodosius the Great and 
his two sons, was probably born and educated at Alexandria, but 
Ave know little of his history. He came to Rome about a.d. 395, 
and, under the patronage of Stilicho, rose to a high position in the 
state. The time and place of his death are unknown. His chief 
works were, 1. Raptus Proserpinse, an unfinished poem in three 
parts ; 2. Gigantomachia, another unfinished work ; 3. De Bello 
Gildo'nico, of which we possess only the first book ; and, 4. De Bel- 
lo Getico, in which the poet sings the victory of Stilicho over Alaric 
at Pollentia. His poems have a rude vigor which sometimes strikes 
the attention, but are chiefly valued for the light they throw upon 
the Gothic wars. They are marked by many faults of taste. 

Lyric poetry was little cultivated at Rome after the death of 
Horace ; but satire, which was peculiar to the Romans, reached 
its highest excellence under the empire. Juvenal is still the mas- 
ter of this kind of writing, although he has been imitated by Boileau, 
Pope, and Johnson ; and his contemporary Persius was also a writer 
of great power. . . 

Aulus Persius Flaccus was born at Volaterrse, in Etruna, in the 
year a.d. 34, of a distinguished family of the equestrian rank. He 
was educated at Rome under the best masters, particularly under 
the Stoic Cornutus, with whom he lived in close friendship, as well 
as with Lucan, Seneca, and the most distinguished men of his time. 
He died at the early age of twenty-eight, leaving behind him six 
satires and a brief preface. Persius possessed a generous, manly 
character, was the foe of every kind of vice, and formed one of that 
graceful band of writers who maintained their independence under 
the terrors of a despotic government. 

Decimus Junius Juvenalis, of whose life we have few particulars, 
was born at Aquinum a.d. 38 or 40, and came up to Rome, where 
he at first studied eloquence with great ardor, but at length gave 
himself wholly to satirical writing. He offended Domitian by his 
satires, it is said, and was sent by that emperor to the extreme bound- 
ary of Egypt, where he died of grief and exile; but scarcely any fact 
in the history of this great man has been perfectly ascertained. 

We possess sixteen satires of Juvenal, the last of which, however, 
is of doubtful authenticity. These satires are full of noble appeals 
to the purest emotions of virtue, and of severe rebukes for triumph- 
ant vice. Juvenal's language is often harsh and his taste impure ; 
but his ideas are so elevated, his perception of truth, honor, and 



346 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLV. 

justice so clear, that he seldom fails to win the attention of his 
readers. 

Epigrams seem to have been a favorite mode of expressing 
thought at the court of Augustus, and almost every eminent Roman 
from the time of Cicero has left one or more of these brilliant trifles 
behind him. M. Valerius Martialis, the chief of the epigrammatists, 
was born about a.d. 40, at Bibilis, in Spain, from whence he came 
to Rome, when about twenty, to perfect his education. Here he 
lived for thirty-five years, engaged in poetical pursuits, and patron- 
ized by Titus and Domitian. He seems finally to have returned 
to his native land, where he was living in the year a.d. 100. His 
poems are about fifteen hundred in number, divided into fourteen 
books, and are altogether original in their design. They are al- 
ways witty, often indecent, and contain many personal allusions 
which can not now be understood. Martial is one of the most gift- 
ed of the Roman writers. 

The practice of writing epigrams was preserved until a very late 
period. Seneca, Pliny the younger, Hadrian, and many others, 
were fond of composing them ; and in modern times the epigram 
has been a favorite kind of poetry with most good writers. 

Pheedrus, who lived under Augustus and Tiberius, wrote pleas- 
ing fables. Calphurnius and Ausonius imitated Virgil's bucolics, 
and fragments of many other poets are preserved, whom we can not 
mention here. 

Historical writers also abounded under the empire. Velleius 
Paterculus, an excellent historian descended from a patrician fam- 
ily, was born about B.C. 19. He was the friend and flatterer of Ti- 
berius, and rose, in consequence, to several high ofiices. He was 
QuEBstor in perhaps a.d. 7, and Praetor in a.d. 15. His Historicce 
Roinance, two books of which remain, is an abridgment of the his- 
tory of the world, written in a clear and pleasing style, and is, in 
general, trustworthy. He flatters his benefactors, Augustus and 
Tiberius, but his fine tribute to the memory of Cicero shows that he 
felt a strong sympathy with that chief of the Republicans. 

Valerius Maximus, who also lived under Tiberius, wrote a con- 
siderable work, composed of remarkable examples of virtue, and 
other anecdotes, collected from Roman or foreign history. He had 
plainly a just conception of moral purity, although he dedicates his 
book to Tiberius. His style is inflated and tasteless, but the work 
is not without interest. 

Next after Valerius arose Tacitus, the chief of the imperial prose 
writers. Tacitus, a plebeian by birth, was born at Interamna. The 
year of his birth is not known, but must have lain between a.d. 47 
and A.D. 61. Tacitus served in the army under Vespasian and 



A.D. 14-476. ROMAN LITERATURE. 347 

Titus. He rose to many honors in the state, but in a.d. 89 left 
Rome, together with his wife, the daughter of the excellent Agric- 
ola. He returned thither in a.d. 97, and was made Consul by the 
Emperor Nerva. His death took place, no doubt, after a.d. 117. 
So few are the particulars that remain of the life of this eminent 
man ; but the disposition and sentiments of Tacitus may be plainly 
discovered in his writings. He was honest, candid, a sincere lover 
of virtue. He lamented incessantly the fall of the old republic, and 
does not spare Augustus or Tiberius, whom he believed to be its 
destroyers. Like Juvenal, whom he resembled in the severity of 
his censure as well as the greatness of his powers, Tacitus wrote 
in a sad, desponding temper of mind, as if he foresaw the swift de- 
cline of his country. 

His style is wholly his own — concise, obscure, strong, forever 
arousing the attention. He could never have attained the easy 
elegance of Livy, and he never tells a story with the grace of that 
unequaled narrator, but he has more vigor m his descriptions, more 
reality in his characters. 

The life of his father-in-law Agricola is one of the most delight- 
ful of biographies. His account of the Germans was a silent satire 
upon the corrupt condition of the Roman state. The Hlstoriarum 
Libri is a history of his own age, from the fall of Galba to the death 
of Domitian, and was probably designed to embrace the reigns of 
Nerva and Trajan. A small portion only of this work is preserved. 
The Annates relate the history of Rome from the death of Augus- 
tus to that of Nero, but are also imperfect. A treatise upon the 
orators is also attributed to the historian. Tacitus and Juvenal 
are the last great names in Roman literature. 

Quintus Curtius Rufus, an interesting writer, who lived perhaps 
under Claudius or Tiberius, his true period being uncertain, wrote, 
in ten books, an account of the exploits of Alexander the Great. 
He was succeeded by C. Suetonius Tranquillus, who came to Rome 
during the reign of Domitian, and there studied rhetoric and gram- 
mar. Under Hadrian he fell into disgrace and went into exile : the 
period of his death is unknown. Suetonius wrote the lives of the 
twelve Cassars, ending with Domitian. His language is good, and 
he paints with uncommon minuteness the vices as well as the vir- 
tues of his subjects ; he abounds, too, in particulars which throw 
light upon the manners of the Romans. Suetonius also wrote sev- 
eral short treatises, while various biographies have been attributed 
to him which probably belong to inferior writers. 

L. Annajus Florus, who perhaps lived under Trajan, wrote an 
epitome of Roman history. Justin, whose period is unknown, 
wrote or abridged from an earlier author, Trogus, a history of the 



348 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLV. 

world. The Scrlptores Histoi-ife Augustce is a collection of writers 
of little merit, who flourished in different periods of the empire. 
Aurelius Victor, who was probably Prsefect of Rome under Theo- 
dosius, wrote Origo Gentis Romance^ only a small portion of which 
has been presented, and several other historical works. Eutropius, 
who served under Julian against the Persians, composed a brief 
history of Rome, written in a pure and natural style. 

Ammianus Marcellinus, who lived under Valens, Valentinian, 
and Theodosius until a.d. 410, and was a Greek by birth, wrote a 
history of the empire from Nerva to the death of Valens, a.d. 378. 
A large part of this work is lost. Ammianus abounds in digres- 
sions and descriptions, and is, on that account, the more entertain- 
ing. His manner can not be praised. 

The Spaniard Orosius concludes the list of the Latin historians. 
Orosius was a Christian presbytei*, and, while defending Christian- 
ity, paints a lamentable picture of the condition of the pagan world. 
He borrowed from Justin and other writers, and lived in the fifth 
century. 

Rhetoric continued to be cultivated, but eloquence no longer pos- 
sessed the power which it held under the Republic. The speeches 
now delivered were chiefly declamations upon unimportant themes. 
M. Annseus Seneca, the father of the philosopher, came to Rome 
from his native city Corduba, in Spain, during the reign of Augus- 
tus, and became a famous rhetorician. M. Fabius Quintilianus, a 
greater name in literature, was born a.d. 42, at Calgurris, in Spain, 
but, as was customary with men of merit at that period, went up to 
Rome, and became celebrated as a teacher of rhetoric. He was a 
person of excellent chai*acter, and, besides practicing at the bar, rose 
to the consulship. Having passed many years in politics or the 
law, Quintilian at last returned to his old profession, and in the 
close of his life gave himself wholly to letters. He now wrote his 
work upon oratory, Libri duodecim Institutionis Oratorice. In this 
valuable work he seeks to restore the purity of the language, incul- 
cates simplicity, and shows an excellent taste. The younger Pliny 
was also a famous orator or declaimer. 

The Romance, or modern novel, is also thought to have begun in 
the first century with the satirical tale ascribed to Petronius Arbi- 
ter, or perhaps with the translation of the Milesian tales of Aris- 
tides from the Greek by Sisenna. The Petronii Arbitri Satiricon 
is a romance in prose and verse, and was probably written in the 
first century by an author of whom nothing is known. It relates 
the adventures of a certain Encolopius, and satirizes the vices and 
follies of the age. The language of this work is pure, the wit live- 
ly, but indecent : only a portion, however, of the Satiricon has been 



A.D. 14-476. ROMAN LITERATURE. 349 

preserved. During the age of the Antonines arose Appnkius, the 
best known of the ancient writers of tales. lie was box-n at Ma- 
daura, in Africa, but went to Carthage, and from thence to Athens, 
where he was initiated into the Grecian mysteries, and studied the 
Platonic philosophy. Appuleius was an agreeable speaker, and 
had filled his mind with the learning of his age ; but his fame with 
posterity rests upon his novel Metamorphoseon, in which he strives 
to correct the vices of his contemporaries. In this work a vicious 
young man is transformed into an ass, under which form he goes 
through many amusing adventures, but is at last changed to a new 
man through the influence of the mysteries. The story is full of 
episodes, the moral good, but the language shows the decline of 
literary taste. 

Philosophy, since the time of Cicero, had become a favorite study 
with the Romans, although they produced no remarkable philoso- 
pher. Seneca, the most eminent of them, was the son of M. An- 
nseus Seneca, the rhetorician. He Avas probably born at Corduba, 
in Spain, soon after the Christian era, and was educated by the best 
masters at Rome. He possessed an active intellect, was early re- 
nowned, and held various high offices in the state. Having been 
the preceptor of Nero, he was finally condemned to death by that 
monster, and put an end to his life a.d. 65. Seneca was a Stoic, 
and taught self-control, tranquillity of mind, and contempt for the 
changes of fortune. His various essays and other writings have al- 
ways been admired, although he wanted a correct taste, and is often 
affected and rhetorical. He possessed great wealth, which he either 
inherited or accumulated. His town house was adorned with mar- 
bles and citron-wood, and his country villas, of which he had sev- 
eral, were filled with costly luxuries ; yet his morals were probably 
pure, and he was much beloved for his generosity and fidelity to his 
many friends. 

The elder Pliny, Plinius Secundus Major, another famous philoso- 
pher, was born in the year a.d. 23, either at Como or Verona. He 
served with the army in Germany, and rose high in office under 
Vespasian. Being in command of the fleet at Misenum -during the 
first eruption of Vesuvius in a.d. 79, in order to gratify his curios- 
ity he remained too long near the burning mountain, and was suf- 
focated by its exhalations. Pliny passed his Avhole life in study, 
and was never satisfied unless engaged in acquiring knoAvledge. 
His Historia Naturalis resembles the Cosmos of Humboldt, and 
passes in review over the whole circle of human knowledge. It 
treats of the heavens, of the earth and its inhabitants, of the various 
races of man, of animals, trees, flowers, minerals, the contents of 
the sea and land, of the arts and sciences ; and shows that the au- 



S50 HISTORY OF ROME. Chap. XLV. 

thor possessed an intellect of almost unequaled activity. His 
nephew, the younger Pliny, who lived under Trajan, and was the 
favorite correspondent of that emperor, is remembered for his agree- 
able letters, and the purity and dignity of his character. 

Grammatical studies and critical writings also aiforded employ- 
ment for many intelligent Romans ; and every part of the empire 
seems to have been filled with cultivated men, who, possessing wealth 
and leisure, gave themselves to literary studies. Anlus Gellius, one 
of the best known of the grammarians, lived during the period of 
the Antonines. His Nodes Atticce is a critical work in twenty 
books, in which he discusses many questions in language, philoso- 
phy, and science. He seems to have passed his life in traveling 
over Italy and Greece, collecting materials for this work, and, 
wherever he goes he never fails to meet with agreeable, intelligent 
friends, who delight, like himself, in improving conversation. 

Aurelius Macrobius, another well-known grammarian, lived dur- 
ing the fifth century. His Commentary on the Dream of Scipio 
is full of the scientific speculations of his age. His Saturnalia con- 
tains many extracts from the best Roman writers, with criticisms 
upon them, in which he detects the plagiarisms of Virgil, and ob- 
serves the faults as well as the beauties of the orators and poets of 
Rome. The works of other grammarians have been preserved or 
are partly known to us, among which are those of Servius, Festus, 
Priscianus, and Isidorus. 

The study of the law, too, flourished in uncommon excellence un- 
der the emperors, and neai'ly two thousand legal works were con- 
densed in the Digests of Justinian, few of which belonged to the 
Republican period. Under Augustus and Tiberius, Q, Antistius 
Labeo founded the famous school of the Proculians. He left four 
hundred volumes upon legal subjects. His rival, C. Ateius Capito, 
founded the school of the Sabinians, and was also a profuse writer. 
Under Hadrian, Salvius Julianus prepared the Edictum Perpetuum, 
about the year a.d. 132, which condensed all the edicts of former 
magistrates into a convenient code. Papinianus, Ulpianus, and 
Paulus were also celebrated for their legal writings. The only 
complete legal work, however, which we possess from this period, 
is a Commentary by Gains, who lived probably under Hadrian. 
This valuable treatise was discovered in the year 1816 by the his- 
torian Niebuhr, in the library of Verona. It contains a clear ac- 
count of the principles of the Roman law, and the Institutes of Jus- 
tinian are little more than a transcript of those of Gaius. 

Various medical writers also belong to the Imperial period, the 
most important of whom is A. Cornelius Celsus. Works on agri- 
culture were also written by Columella, Palladius, and others, which 



A.D. 14-476. 



ROMAN LITERATURE. 



351 



serve to show the decline of that pursuit among the Romans. Ge- 
Qf^raphy, mathematics, and architecture were also cultivated; but 
of most of these scientific authors only the name is preserved. 




Juvenal. 



INDEX. 



Arcensi^ 123. 

Accin?', L., 275. 

Achseau League, 107 ; in 
alliance with Philip V., 
IDS. 

Achsean War, 138. 

^diles, 117. 

Adolphiis, brother of Ala- 
ric, 341. 

Mliws, Saturninus, 297. 

^lius Sejanus, 297 ; his 
death, 290. 

iEmilianus, 324. 

-^milius Lepidus, M., mili- 
tary road made by, 114. 

^Emilias Paullus, L., end^s 
the war in Illyria, 79 ; 
slain in the battle of 
Cannae, 83. 

.^niilius Paullus, L. (:5on), 
defeats Perseus, 135. 

-(Eneas, legend of, 8. 

jEiiuians, 58. 

iEtolian League, 107; forms 
alliance with Ilorae, 108 ; 
but is obliged to make 
peace with Philip V., 
108 ; chief town Ambra- 
cia taken by the Romans, 
111 ; compelled to sue for 
peace, and the League 
crushed, 111. 

Afranius, L., Consul, 224. 

Afranius, L. (poet), 274. 

Africa, invaded by the Ro- 
mans, 72; under Augus- 
tus, 287. 

Agrarian Law of Sp. Cas- 
sius, 31 ; law introduced 
by Ti. Gracchus, 150, 
151 ; extended by C. 
Gracchus, 157 ; law in- 
troduced by C0B?ar, 225. 

Agricola, Julius, legate to 
Britain, 303 ; his forced 
retirement, 305. 

Agrigentum besieged and 
taken, 70. 

Agrippa, M., Octavian's 



ANTIOCHUS. 
general, drives L. Anto- 
nius and Fulvia out of 
Rome, 263 ; defeats them 
at Perusia, 2G3 ; con- 
structs the Julius Portus, 
2C5 ; defeats Heet of Sex- 
tus Pompey, 266. 

Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, 
2S6. 

Agrippa, Postumus, 293 ; 
assassination of, 295. 
^rippina, 298 ; put to 
death by Tiberius, 299. 

Alaric ravages Greece, 
839 ; besieges Rome, 
340; sacks the city, 341. 

Alba Longa, foundation of, 
8 ; destruction of, 14. 

Alban Lake, legend of the, 
43. 

Alesia surrenders to Cae- 
sar, 234. 

Alexander Severus, Em- 
peror, 3-2. 

Alexandria, 288 ; trade be- 
tween, and the Indies, 
288. 

AUcmanni threaten Rome, 
324 ; defeated by Aure- 
lian, 325. 

Allobroges, embassadors of 
tlie, 220. 

i\Jps, Hannibal's passage 
of, note on, 90. 

Ambitus, 128. 

Ancus Marcius, succeeds 
Tullus Hostilius, 14 ; 
conquers several Latin 
cities, and removes in- 
habitants to Rome, 14; 
institutes the Fetiales, 
15; founds a colony at 
Ostia, 15 ; fortifies the 
Janiculum, 15 ; con- 
structs the Pons Subli- 
cius, 15; his reign and 
death, 15. 

Andriscus, 137. 

Antiochus, king of Syria 
proposes to Philip V. to 
partition Egypt between 
them, 108; receives Han 

z 



ANTONY, 
nibal as a fugitive, 110 ; 
is persuaded to invade 
Greece, 110 ; is defeated 
at Thermopylae, and re- 
turns to Syria, 111 ; in- 
vades the kingdom of 
Pergamus, but is defeat- 
ed near Magnesia, 111 ; 
is compelled to cede all 
his dominions in Asia 
Minor, to pay fines, and 
surrender Hannibal, 111 ; 
peace concluded, and af- 
fairs of Asia settled, 112. 

Antiochus Asiaticus de- 
posed, 212. 

Antex>ilani, 122. 

Antoninus, M. Aurelius, 
Emperor, 314; death of, 
316. 

Antoninus, M. Commodus, 
Emperor, 316. 

Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 
313. 

Antonius, C, 219, 220, 221. 

Antonius, M. (orator), as- 
sassinated, 185. 

Antony (Marcus Antonius), 
Consul with Ca;sar, 249 ; 
offers the diadem to Cae- 
sar, 249 ; takes posses- 
sion of Caesar's papers 
and treasures, 252 ; pro- 
nounces the funeral ora- 
tion over the body of 
Caesar, 253 ; master of 
Rome, 253 ; attacked by 
Cicero in his Philippics, 
254; retires to Cisalpine 
Gaul, and besieges Mu- 
tino, 254 ; declared a 
public enemy, 254 ; de- 
feats Pansa, 255; is de- 
feated by Hirtius, 255 ; 
received in Farther Gaul 
by Lepidus, 255; forms 
Triumvirate with Octa- 
vian and Lepidus, 256 ; 
defeats Cassius at Phi- 
lippi,261 ; licentious con- 
duet in Asia Minor, and 
meeting with Cleopatra, 



55* 



INDEX. 



APOLLONIA. 

•■262, 26J ; follows her to 
Alexandi-ia, 2GI3 ; Fnl- 
via, his -wife, and L. An- 
toaius, his brother, rise 
against him, 268 ; his 
troops defeated in Syria, 
264; meets his wife and 
brother at Athens, 264; 
his wife dies, 264 ; forms 
an alliance with Sextus 
Ponipey, 264 ; marries 
Octavia, sister of Octa- 
vian, 264 ; returns to the 
East with Octavia, 265 ; 
his success in Syria, 265 ; 
makes another treaty 
with Octavian, 266 ; re- 
news his union with CJle- 
opatra, 267 ; is defeated 
in Parthia, 267 ; returns 
to Alexandria, 267 ; is 
defeated by Octavian in 
the battle of Actium, 
268, 269 ; is again de- 
feated at Alexandria, 
269 ; stabs himself, 269. 

Apollonia, besieged by 
Philip V. of Macedon, 
107. 

Appellntw^ 121. 

Appius Claudius, 38, 40. 

Appius Claudius Csecus, 
66 ; his son, 69. 

Appuleius, 349. 

Apulia, 4. 

Aquse Sextse, battle at, 
171. 

Aquillius, M'., Consul, sup- 
presses the Second Ser- 
vile "War in Sicily, 172 : 
is defeated, and made 
prisoner by Mithridates, 
188. 

Arabia Felix invaded by 
Trajan, 3(18. 

Arabia Petrsea made a 
Ivoman province, 308. 

Arcadius, son of Theodo- 
sius, 339 ; his cruelties, 
341. 

Archelaus defeated at Chse- 
ronea, 18S ; and again at 
Orchomenos, 189. 

Archimedes, 93, 94. 

Ariobarzanes expelled from 
Cappadocia, 187 ; re- 
stored, 188 ; again ex- 
pelled, 188 ; restored to 
his kingdom, 213. 

Ariovistus defeated by Cae- 
sar, £30. 



BRUTUS. 

Aristobulus surrenders to 
Pompey, 212,213. 

Armenia, Pompey in, 212. 

Arminius, 291. 

Army, Roman, constitu- 
tion of, 122. 

Artaxata, submission of 
Mithridates at, 212. 

As (weight), 19. 

Ascanius, legend of, 8. 

Asculum, revolt at, 178. 

Astures conquered by Au- 
gustus, 291. 

Atellance Fabulce^ 275. 

Athenio, leader of slaves in 
Sicily, 172 ; defeated and 
slain by Catulus, 172. 

Athens, 107 ; declares 
against Rome, 188. 

Attains Philometor, 147. 

Attila invades Italy, 342. 

Augurs, 18, 57. 

Augusta Emerita (Merida) 
founded by Augustus, 
291. 

Aurelian, Emperor, 325, 

Ausonius, 346. 

Autronius Paetus, P., 218. 

Avidius Cassius defeats 
the Parthians, 315. 

B. 

Babylon captured by Tra- 
jan, 308. 

Balearic Slingers, 124. 

Barcochab, 312. 

Belgic War, 230. 

BibulusM.,216,225. 

Boadicea, 302. 

Boii finally conquered and 
slaughtered, 114. 

Bononia (Bologna), colony 
at, 114. 

Bosporus, Cimmerian, 211. 

Brennus, 45, 46, 47. 

Brigantium taken by Cae- 
sar, 224. 

Bruttii, 4. 

Britain, first invasion by 
Caesar, 231 ; second in- 
vasion, 232. 

Brutus, D., put to death at 
Aquileia, 256. 

Brntus, L. Junius, 23-25 ; 
his death, 26. 

Brutus, M. Junius, Praetor, 
conspires with Cassius 
and others to assassinate 
Caesar, 249 ; retires to 
Macedonia, 253 ; goes to 



CJEBKR. 

Athens, and collects an 

army, 257, 258 ; plan- 
ders Lycia, 258; crosses 
over into Thrace, 258; 
defeated by Octavian at 
Philippi, 261 ; slays him- 
self, 261. 

C. 

C'aecilius, Q. , 274. 

(- aesar Augusta (Saragos- 
sa) founded by Augus- 
tus, 291. 

Caesar, Augustus, his con- 
duct of the empire, 286 ; 
extent of his empire, 
28:) ; his government, 
289 ; decree against celi- 
bacy, 289; his protection, 
the Praetorian Guard, 
290 ; army, navy, and 
revenues, 290 ; plots 
against his life, 290; his 
military enterprises, 291; 
domestic misfortunes, 
291-293; his death, 293 ; 
personal appearance, 
294. 

Caesar, Caius Caligtila,293 ; 
succeeds Tiberius, 299 ; 
death of, 300. 

Cfesar, Caius Julius, early 
life, 214, 215; Quaestor, 
215 ; ^dile, 216 ; re- 
stores statues and ti'o- 
phies of Marius, 216 ; 
Propraetor in Spain, 224 ; 
his conquests there, 224 ; 
Consul, 225; forms cabal 
with Pompey and Cras- 
sus (1st Triumvirate), 
225 ; carries Agrarian 
Law, 225; supports Pom- 
pey, and gives him his 
only daughter Julia in 
marriage, 225 ; divorces 
his wife, 226 ; obtains 
command in Gaul, 226 ; 
1st camp.iign in Gaul, 
229 ; 2d, 230 ; 3d, 230 ; 
4th, 231; 5th, 232; 6th, 
232; 7th, 233; 8th, 234; 
rivalry of Pompey, '^37- 
8-9 ; returns to Italy, 
210; quarters at Raven- 
nn, 240; ordered to dis- 
band his army, 240; re- 
fuses, and crosses the 
Rubicon, 241 ; enters 
Kome, 242 ; conquers his 



INDEX. 



355 



CiESAR. j CELSUS. 

opponents in Spain, 242 ; Caractacus, 301. 
short Dictatorship, 243 ; Carbo, Cn. Papirius, Con 
crosses to Greece to en-j siil, joins Cinnse, 190. 
counter Pompey, 243-4 ; Carinas, 326. 
total defeat of Pompey Carthage, 6S ; capture and 



in the battle of Pharsa- 
lia, 245 ; Dictator, 240 : 
pursues Pompey into 
Egypt, 246 ; supports 
Cleopatra, 246 ; conquers 
Pharnaces in Syria, 246; 
returns to Rome, 246 



destruction of, 142 ; re 
built by the Romans 
142; capital of the Van 
dal kingdom, 142 ; final- 
ly destroyed by the 
Arabs, 142, 
Cartliaginians, their navy, 



defeats Pompeian army 70; defeated by the Ko- 
in Africa, 24T; death of I man navy, 71, 72, 



Cato at Utica, 247; mas- 
ter of the Roman world, 
and Dictator for ten 
years, 247 ; his Triumph, 
247: his clemency and 
reforms, 247-8-9 ; Impe- 
rator and Dictator for 
life, 249 ; appoints Octa- 
vius his heir, 2 19 ; con- 
spiracy against him, 240- 
50 ; assassination, 250 ; 
character, 250-1 ; his 
character as a writer* 
283. 

Csesar, L. Julius, Consul, 
179; in Social War, 179 ; 
proposes Lex Julia, 179. 

Cfcsar, Lucius, 293. 

C8e.?ar, Tiberius Claudius, 
succeeds Caligula, 300 ; 
enters Britain, 301. 

Csesar, Vespasianus, 301; 
emperor, 302 ; death, 
303. 

Cse-ar, A. Yitellius, Em- 
peror, 302. 

Calabria, 4. 

Calphurnius, 346. 

Calpurnian Law, 157. 

Camillus, M. Furius, 43, 
44, 47, 4S, 52. 

Campagna, 3. 

Campania, 4. 

Canute, immense Roman 
army defeated at, by 
Hannibal, 83, 



Cams, Emperor, 326. 

Catiliua, L. Sergius, early 
life, 218 ; crimes, 218 ; 
conspiracy, 219 ; accused 
by Cicero, 219 ; leave 
Rome, 220 ,• collects 
troops, 221 ; defeated and 
slain, 221. 

Cas.-^iu3 Longinus,C., fights 
under Ciassus in Meso- 
potamia, 237 ; conducts 
the retreat to Syria, 237 
originates the conspiracy 
against Csesar, 249 ; re- 
tires into Syria, 253 ; de- 
feats Dolabella in Syria, 
258 ; plunders Rhodes, 
258; marches A^^ith Bru- 
tus into Thrace, 258 ; 
defeated by Antony at 
Philippi, 261 ; his death, 
261. 

Cato, M. Porcius, in Spain, 
114 : Quaestor, Praetor, 
Consul, 129 ; Censor, 
132 ; his reforms, 132 ; 
his prejudices, 132, 133 ; 
his severity and avarice, 
133. 

Cato, SI. Porcius, advo- 
cates the death of the 
Catilinarian conspira- 
tors, 221 ; his death at 
Utica, 247; his character 
as a writer, 282. 

Catullus, Valerius, 276. 



Cantabri conquered by Catulus, Q. Lutatius, com 



Augustus, 291 
Cantabrians, 114, 144-5. 
Canuleia Lex, 41. 
Capito, C. Ateius, 350. 
Capitolium, 23. 
Ca)iua opens its gates to 

Hannibal, 89 ; retaken 

by the Romans, 96. 
Caracalla, Mmperoi-, 321; 

assassinated, 322. 



bined Avith Marius in the 
overthrow of the Cimbri, 
171 ; his death by order 
of Marius, 185. 

Catulus, Q. Lutatius (son), 
hails Cicero as '■'Father 
of his Country," 221. 

Caudine Forks, battle at, 
57, 58. 

jCelaus, A. Cornelius, 351. 



CLAUDIANUS. 

Celtiberians, tribes of, 114; 
war Avith, 145. 

Censors, 118. 

Census, 118. 

Centuriones^ 122. 

Cethegus, C. Cornelius, 
219, 220. 

Chosroes, king of the Par- 
thians, 310. 

Cicero, M. Tullius, early 
life, studies, and success 
as an orator, 216; Quaes- 
tor, 217 ; prosecutes Ver- 
res, 217 ; his speech for 
Sex. Roscius of Ameria, 
216; studies at Athens 
and in Asia IMinor, 216; 
Quse-tor in Sicily, under 
Sex. Peducseus, at Lily- 
baeum, 217; yEdile, Prse- 
tor, 217 ; Consul, 219 ; 
opposes agrarian law of 
RuUus, 219 ; denounces 
Catiline, 219 ; arrests 
conspii-ators, 220; third 
oration, 220; his popu- 
larity, 221 ; hostility of 
Clodius, 227 ; his ban- 
ishment, 227 ; his return 
to Rome, 22S ; joins the 
party of Caesar's assas- 
sins, '-52; his Philippics 
against Antony, 254 ; 
stimulates the Senate 
against Ar.tony and Cc- 
taAdan, £55; is included 
in the list of prosci-ip- 
tions, 257 ; his death, 
257 ; his character as a 
Avriter, 282. 

Cimbri, 169 ; they enter 
and ravage Spain, 170 ; 
enter Italy, destroyed by 
Marius and Catulus, 171. 

Cincinnatus and the ^qui- 
ans, 34. 

Cincius Alimentus, L., 282. 

Cinna, L., Consul, 184 ; 
conflict with Octavius. 
185 ; associated with 
Marius, 185; their mas- 
sacres in Rome, 185 ; 
murdered by bis army, 
190. 

Cinna, grandson of Pom- 
pey, 290. 

Circus Maximus, 17. 

Cisalpine Gaul, a Roman 
proA'ince, 114. 

Gives Romania 66. 

Claudianus, Claudius, "45. 



35G 



INDEX. 



CLAUDIUS. 

Claudius, M. Aurelius, Em- 
peror, 325. 

Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, 
meets M. Antony at Tar- 
sus, 262-3 ; attracts him 
to Alexandria, 263 ; is de- 
serted for Octavia, 265; 
again attracts Antony, 
who returns with her to 
Alexandria, 267 ; war 
declared against her by 
the Senate, 268 ; defeat- 
ed with Antony at Acti- 
um, 268; deceives An- 
tony, hut fails to deceive 
Octavian, 269 ; kills her- 
self, 269. 

Clients, 12. 

Clodius Albinus, 319. 

Clodius Pulcher, P., profli- 
gate conduct of, 226 ; 
tribune, 227 ; procures 
the banishment of Cic- 
ero, 227 ; killed by Milo, 
238. 

Clusium besieged, 45. 

Cocceius Nerva, 298, 299 ; 
emperor, 366. 

Cohorts, 123. 

CoUatia, CoUatinus, 16. 

Colonies, Roman, 43. 

Colosseum, the, 303. 

Columella, 350. 

Comitia Centuriata^ 20, 
120. 

Comitia Curiata, 12, 20, 
120. 

Comitia Tributa, 18, 20, 
121. 

Constantino proclaimed 
Augustus, 330 ; emper- 
or, 331 ; removes the 
capital to Constantino- 
ple, 332 ; his character, 
335. 

Constantius, 328 ; empe- 
ror, 329. 

Consuls, duties of, 118. 

Corfinium, new republic 
at, 178. 

Corinth captured, and 
burnt, 138. 

Coriolanus, C. Marcius,32 ; 
banished from Rome, 32 
invades Rome at the 
head of a Volscian army 
32 ; spares the city, 33 
his death, 33. 

Cornelia, mother of the 
Gracchi, 149, 160. 

Cornelia, daughter of Cin 



DECEMVIRATE. 
na, married to Caesar, 
214;. her death, 215. 

Cornelise Leges, 186. 

Cornelii, slaves so called, 
195. 

Cornelius Fronto, 314. 

Corsica and Sardinia form- 
ed into a Roman prov- 
ince, 77. 

Corsica, revolt in, 115. 

Cotta, C. Aurelius, lawyer, 
216. 

Cotta, L. Aurelius, 218. 

Cotta, M. Aurelius, de- 
feated by Mithridates, 
206. 

Crassus, P. Licinius, 147. 

Crassus, M. Licinius, Prfe- 
tor, appointed to com 
mand the army against 
the Gladiators, 202 ; de 
feats and slays Sparta 
cus, 203 ; Consul with 
Pompey, 203 ; forms 1st 
Triumvirate with Cse 
and Pompey, 225 ; meets 
Csesar 'and Pompey at 
Luca, 236; second Con 
sulship with Pompey, 
236 : his command in 
Syria, 236 ; crosses the 
Euphrates, 237; defeat 
ed and killed, 237. 

Cremona besieged, 113. 

Cretan Archers (^Sagitta- 
rii), 124. 

Ctesiphon captured by 
Trajan, 308. 

Curiae, 12. 

Curiatii, 13. 

Curius, M'., defeats Pyr 
rhus, 65. 

Curtius, M., legend of, 53. 

Cuiules Magistratus, 117. 



D. 

Dacia made a Roman 
province, 308. 

Dacians cross the Danube, 
305. 

Decebalus, 305; demands 
tribute, 307 ; his defeat, 
308. 

Decemvirate, 36 ; Decem 
viri appointed, 37 ; their 
tyranny, 37 ; the Twelve 
Tables, 38 ; Decemviri 
continue in office, < 
they assassinate Licinius 
Dentatus, 38 ; Virginia 



ETRUSCANS, 
slain by her father to 
save her from the De- 
cemvir Appius Claudius, 
39 ; resignation of the 
Decemvirs, 39 ; and elec- 
tion of 10 Tribunes, 40. 

Decius Mus, P., self-sacri- 
fice, 55 ; and of his son, 
59. 

Decuriones, 123. 

Deiotarus, tetrarch of Ga- 
latia, 213. 

Delatores, 297, 303. 

Demetrius of Pharos, 79. 

Dictator, 28 (note), 51. 

Dictatorship, 118 ; revived 
by Sulla, 194. 

Didius Julianus, Emperor, 
319. 

Diocletian, Emperor, 327 ; 
selects Maximian for his 
colleague, 328; defeats 
the Persians, 329. 

Dolabella, Cn. , accused of 
extortion, 215 ; puts an 
end to his life, 258. 

Domitian, reign of, 305. 

Drama, Roman, 272. 

Drusus, M. Livius, 158, 
159. 

Drusus, 291 ; sent to Ger- 
many, 296 ; receives the 
tribunitian power, 297; 
poisoned by his wife, 
2J8. 

Drusus, M. Livius, son of 
the opponent of C. Grac- 
chus, elected a Tribune, 
endeavors to obtain the 
Roman franchise for the 
Allies, 176 ; assassina- 
ted, 176. 



Eburones, revolt of the, 
232. 

Egypt, condition of, 107 ; 
under Augustus, 288. 

Elagabalus, Emperor, 322. 

Enna (Servile War), 146- 
7. 

Ennius, Q., 273. 

Equestrian Order, 158. 

Etruria, 2. 

Etruscans, their name, 
language, origin, and 
portions of Italy occu- 
pied by them; 5, 6 ; wars 
with the, 43; defeated, 
58; in league with the 



INDEX. 



357 



EUMENES. 
Umbrians, 59 ; defeated 
at Lake Vadimo, 60. 

Eumenes, king of Perga- 
mus, obtains Mysia, 
Lydia, and part of (Ja- 
ria, 112. 

Eunus (Sei-vile War), 146, 
147. 

Eutropius, 348. 

F. 

Fabia Gens and the Veien- 
tinea, 38. 

Fabius, lieutenant, defeat- 
ed by Mithridatei?, 208. 

Fabius Maximus, Q., ap- 
pointed Dictator, and to 
the command - in - chief 
against Hannibal, 87 ; 
styled the Cunctator, or 
"■ Lingerer," 87 ; obtains 
Tarentum, 96. 

Fabius Pictor, Q., 282. 

Fabius Sanga, Q., 220. 

Falerii surrenders to the 
Romans, 44. 

Faustina, wife of Antoni- 
nus Pius, 315. 

Fescennine songs, 276. 

Fetiales^ 15. 

Fidenpe taken and de- 
stroyed, 43. 

Fimbria defeated, slays 
himself, 189. 

Flaccus, Aulus Persius 
345. 

Flamens, 13. 

Flamininus, L., act of cru 
elty of, 127. 

Flamininus, T. Quinctius 
appointed to the com- 
mand against Philip V. 
whose army is defeated 
in the battle of Cynos 
cephalse, 109 ; proclaims 
the independence of 
Greece, 109; withdraws 
the Roman garrisons 
from all the towns of 
Greece, and returns to 
Italy, 109. 

Flaminius, C, defeats the 
Insubres, 79 ; is defeated 
by Hannibal near Lake 
Trasimenus, and slain, 
86. 

Florian, Emperor, 326. 

Florus, L. Annseus, 347. 

Fossa Mariana, 170. 

Frentani, 3. 



GOTHS. 

Fulvia (mistress of Q. Cu- 
rius), 219. 

Fulvia, wife of M. Antony, 
conspires against him, 
263 ; is driven out of 
Rome, and defeated at 
Perusia, 263 ; dies at 
Sicyon, 264. 

Fulvius Nobilior, M., be- 
sieges and captures the 
town of Ambracia, 111. 



Gabii, 23. 

Gabinius, A., Tribune, 210. 

Gaius, 350. 

Galatia, 106. 

Galatians attacked by Cn. 
Manlius Vulso, defeated 
in two battles, and com- 
pelled to sue for peace, 
112. 

Galba, Ser. Sulpicius, his 
treachery, 144 ; succeeds 
Nero, 302. 

Galerius, 828 ; emperor, 
329. 

Gallia Cisalpina, 2. 

Gallsecians, 114. 

Gallienus, Emperor, 325. 

Gallus, Emperor, 324. 

Gaul, Csesar's wars in, 
229-234; under Augus- 
tus, 287 ; insurrection in 
297. 

Gauls in Italy, 6; (Insu 
bres) conquered, 79. 

Gellius, Aulus, 350. 

Gentes, Roman, 12. 

Germanicus adopted by 
Tiberius, 293 ; quells a 
mutiny on the Rhine, 
296 ; his German cam- 
paigns, 296; his death, 
296. 

Geta, son of Septimius, 
killed by Caracalla, 321. 

Glabrio, M. Acilius, 209. 

Glaucia, fellow-demagogue 
of Saturninus, pelted to 
death with tiles by the 
mob, 175. 

Gordian, Emperor, 324. 

Goths ( S^enones ) besiege 
(Jlusium, 45 ; march 
against Rome, 46 ; battle 
of the Allia, 46 ; Rome 
destroyed, 46 ; the Capi 
tol besieged, 46 ; Capitol 
paved, 47 ; Goths re 



HANNIBAL, 
pulsed and destroyed, 
47 ; invade the Empire, 
324. 

Gracchi, 148-160. 

Gracchus, Caius Sempro 
nius (the Tribune), re- 
turns from Sardinia, 
157 ; elected Tribune, 
157 ; his legal reforms, 
157, 15S ; opposed by M. 
Livius Drusus, 159 ; mur- 
dered, 160. 

Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius 
(father of the Tribunes), 
subdues Spain, 115. 

Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius 
(the Tribune), Quaestor 
in Spain, 145; at the 
siege of Carthage, 149 ; 
elected Tribune, 150; in- 
troduces Agrarian Law, 
150, 151 ; his murdei', 
152. 

Graecia, Magna, 6, 60. 

Greece under Augustus, 
288. 

Greek colonies in Italy, 6. 

H. 

Hadrian, Emperor, 309; 
journey thi'ough his 
provinces, 310 ; his Edic- 
tum Perpettmm, 311 ; 
builds a villa at Tibur, 
312. 

Hamilcar, a Carthaginian 
officer, excites Gauls and 
Ligurians against Ro- 
mans, 113. 

Hamilcar Barca, 75 ; re- 
lieves Lilybseum and 
Drepanum, 76 ; con- 
quests in Spain, 80 ; 
death, 80. 

Hannibal elected to suc- 
ceed Hasdrubal, 80 ; first 
campaigns in Spain, 80 ; 
besieges and takes Sa- 
guntum, 80, 81 ; crosses 
the Iberus and the Pyr- 
enees with a large army, 
83 ; reaches the Rhone, 
83 ; crosses the Alps, 83 ; 
encamps in the plains of 
the Po, among the Insu- 
bres, 84 ; reduces the 
Taurinians, 84 ; defeats 
the army of Scipio near 
the Ticinus, 84 ; defeats 
combined army of Scipio 



358 



INDEX. 



HANNO. I 

and Longus near the 
Trebia, 84 ; marches! 
through Liguria to the' 
Arno, 86 ; defeats C. | 
Flaniinius at Lake Tra-, 
shnenus, 86 ; eludes Q. < 
Fabius and defeats Mi-j 
nucius, 87; annihilates 
an immense Roman army 
at Cannae, 88 ; marches 
into Samnium and Cam- 
pania, and obtains Ca- 
pua, 89 ; his rapid 
marches, 92 ; campaigns 
of 15. o. 215-213, 92, 93 ; 
obtains Tareutum, 93 ; 
marches up to the walls 
of Kome, but is unable 
to take the city, 95 ; 
loses Capua, 96 ; loses 
Salapia, 96; destroys the 
army of Cn. Fulvius at 
Herdonea, 96; loses Ta- 
rentum, 96 ; is recalled 
from Italy, 104 ; defeat- 
ed by Scipio near Zama, 
104 ; is protected by An- 
tiochus, after whose de- 
feat at Magnesia he es 
capes, and is received by 
Prusias, king of Bithyn 
la, 111 ; is demanded by 
Rome, takes poison, and 
dies, 131,132. 

Hanno, in command of 
Carthaginian fleet, de- 
feated by Lutatius Catu- 
lus, 76. 

Hasdrubal succeeds Ha 
milcar, 80 ; founds New 
Carthage, 80 ; assassi- 
nated, 80. 

Hasdrubal, brother of 
Hannibal, marches from 
Spain into Italy, 97 ; is 
defeated on the Metau- 
rus, and slain, 98. 

Ha^tati, 122, 123. 

Helvetii defeated by Cse 
sar, 229. 

Hernican-, 59. 

Herodes Atticus, 314. 

Hiero, king of Syracuse, 
69 ; besieges Messana, 
7t>; is defeated by the 
Romans, and makes 
peace, 70 ; his death, 
93. 

Hirtius, A., Consul, defeats 
Antony at Mutina, but is 
slain, 255. 



JUGURTHA. I 

Hispania Citerior and Ul- 
terior, 114. 

Honorius, son of Theodo-, 
sius, 339. 

Horatii, 13. ' 

Horatius Flaccus, Q. (poet), 
218. 

Hortensia, Lex, 51. 

Hortensius, Q. ( orator ), 
210, 211, 216, 217. 

llostilianus, Emperor, 324. 

Hostilius Mancinus, C, de- 
feated by the Celtiberi- 
ans, 145. 

Huns appear on the Dan- 
ube, 338; cross the river, 
342. 

Hyrcanus favored by Pom- 
pey, 212, 213. 

L 

lapygians, 5. 

Ignobilen^ 128 (note). 

lilyria and Illyrians, 78-9. 

lUyrian Wars, 78, 79. 

Istria subdued, 115. 

Italia, 7. 

Italians prop3r, 5. 

Italicus, C. Silius, 344. 

Italy, geography of, 1 ; 
fertility, 5; early inhab- 
itants, 5 ; struggles in 
Central Italy, 59 ; under 
Augustus, 286, 287. 

lulus, or Ascanius, 8. 



J. 

Janiculum fortified, 15. 

Janus, temple of, 13 
closed for the 2d time, 
78 ; for the 3d time, '-70, 

Jerusalem besieged and 
taken by Pompey, 212. 

Jesus Christ, birth of, 293. 

Jugurtha, under Scipio in 
Spain, 146 ; early life, 
162 ; bribes the Sena- 
tors, 163 ; defeats Ad- 
herbal, and puts him to 
death, 163 ; war declared 
against him, but comes 
to Rome under safe-con 
duct, 164; murders Mas 
siva, and is ordered to 
quit Italy, 164 ; defeat- 
ed by Metellus, 166; and 
by Marius, 167 ; who 
takes him prisoner, and 
conveys him to Rome, 



LICTORS. 
where he is starved in 
prison, 167-8. 

Julia, aunt of Csesar, mar- 
ried to Marius, 214 ; her 
death, 215. 

Julia, daughter of Ca'sar, 
married to Pompey, 225. 

Julia, daughter of Augus- 
tus, 292. 

Julia, Lex, 179-80. 

Julian, Emperor, 337, 

Jus Imaginurit^ 12S (note). 

Justin Martyr, 315. 

JuvenaliSjDecimus Junius, 
345. 

K. 

Kings of Rome, 9-28. 



Labeo, Q. Antistius, 350. 

Labienus (Tribune), 219. 

Laberius, Dec. , 275. 

Latin War, 54; battle at 
the foot of Vet^uviup, 55 ; 
self-sacrifice of P. Decius 
Mus, 55 ; defeat of the 
Latins, 55. 

Latins, 5. 

Latium, 3 ; incorporated 
with the Republic of 
Rome, 56. 

Legends of early Roman 
history, 8. 

Leges and Plebiscita, 121. 

Legiones, 19, 122. 

Lentulus Sura, P. Corne- 
lius, 219, 220, 221. 

Lepidus, 290. 

Lepidus, M., Consul, op- 
poses the public funeral 
of Sulla, 1515-6 ; pro- 
poses the repeal of Sul- 
la's laws, 199 ; collects 
an army and marches 
upon Rome, 199 ; is de- 
feated near the Mulvian 
Bridge, retires to Sar- 
dinia, and dies, 199, 200. 

Lepidus, M., Master of the 
Horse, 249 ; forms Tri- 
umvirate with Octavian 
and Antony, 255 ; in Af- 
rica, 264. 

Licinian Rogations and 
L: ws, 49, 150. 

Licinius colleague with 
Constantine, 331. 

Lictors (note"), 25. 



INDEX. 



359 



LIGURIA. 

Liguria, 2 ; Ligurians, 113. 

Lilybsenm, sieges of, 64, 
74, 75. 

Liviiis Andionicus, M., 
272. 

Living, Titus, 2S4. 

Liican, 301 ; his poetry, 
344. 

Lucania and Lucanians, 4. 

Lucaniaus, 6. 

Lucerea^ 12. 

Lucilius, C, 276. 

Lucretius Carus, T. (poet), 
276. 

Lucullus, L. Licinius, op- 
poses and def.'ajs Mith- 
ridates in Bithynia and 
Pontus, 206-7 ; sends 
Appiiis Claudius to Ti- 
granes, 207 ; his refomis 
in Asia, 2(l7-S; defeats 
Tigranes at Tigranocer- 
ta and at Artaxata, 203; 
recalled, and superseded 
by Ponipey, 2(i9. 

Liidi Mag>v\ 117. 

Lusitania, invaded by Ser. 
Sulpicius Galba, 143 ; 
tribes of, subdued by 
Csesar, 2J4. 

Lusitanians, 114, 144^. 

M. 

Macedonia, kingdom of, 
107 ; under Augustus, 
2S9. 

Macedonian War, 135. 

Macrinus, Emperor, 322 ; 
defeated by Elagabalus, 
322. 

Macrobius, 350. 

Mfficpnas, C. Cilnius, 2S6. 

Mae ius, Sp., slain, 42. 

Magister Equituui, 2S 
(note). 

Magna Giaecia, 6, 60. 

Mamortini, 69. 

Manilian Law, Cicero's ad- 
dress in favor of, 217. 

Manilius, C, Tribune, 210, 

Manipiili\ 122. 

Manlius, M., saves the 
Capitol, 47 ; patron of 
the poor, 48 ; his f«te, 
49. 

Manlius Torquatua, L.,218, 
220. 

^lanlius Torquatus, T., le 
gend of, 48 ; and of his 
son, 55. 



MARIUS 

Manlius Vulso, Cn., defeats 
the Galatians, and aft- 
erward, in conjunction 
with commis.'^ioners, con- 
cludes a peace with An- 
tiocluis, and .settles the 
affairsof Asia, 111,112. 

Marcellinus, Ammianus, 
348. 

Marcellus, 202. 

Marcellus, M., Consul, ar- 
rives in Sicily, 93 ; takes 
Leontini, DiS ; invests 
Syracuse, where he is 
baffled by Archimedes, 
93, but finally captures 
it, 94 ; takes Salapia, 
96 ; defeated and slain 
in Lucania, 97. 

Marcius, C, Coriolanus, 
32. 

INIarcomanni defeat Verus, 
315. 

Marius, C, early life, 161 ; 
in Spain with Scipio, 
146, 162 ; elected Tri 
bune, 162 ; sends the 
Consul Metellus to pris- 
on, 162; elected Prselor, 
16:^ ; marries Julia, sis- 
ter of C. Julius Cajsar 
the elder, 162 ; accompa- 
nies JNIetellus to Africa. 
164; returns to Rome, 
and is elected Consul, 
with command in Nu 
midia, 166 ; repulses i 
combined attack of Ju 
gurtha and Bocchus, 167 ; 
attaches Bocchus to th( 
Romans, at id takes Ju 
gurtha pri.-^oner, both by 
the agency of his Quaes 
tor Sulla, 167 ; elected 
Consul during his ab 
seuce, and returns to 
Rome, leading Jugurtha 
in triumph, 168 ; reor 
ganizes the army, 170 ; 
elected Consul a tliird 
and fourth time, 170 
defeats and destroys the 
Cimbri, Teutones, and 
Ambrones, 171 ; elected 
Consul a fifth tim'', and 
has a Triumph, 171; en 
ters into a compact with 
Saturninus and Glaucia 
173 ; and is elected Con 
sul a sixth time, 173, 
174 ; loses reputation, 



METELLUS 
and sets sail for Cappa- 
docia and Galatia, 175 ; 
in the Social War, 179 ; 
is surpassed by Sulla, 
ISO ; intrigues to obtain 
the command against 
Mithridates, 181 ; is op- 
posed by Sulla, who en- 
ters Rome with his ai-my, 
and Marius makes his 
escape, 183; his suffer- 
ings, risks, and return 
to Rome with Cinnn, 
185.; his conquests, and 
the massacres in Romi^, 
185; in conjunction with 
Cinna elects himself Con- 
sul for the seventh time, 
185; his death, 185. 

^Marius, the younger, de- 
feated by Sulla, 192 ; or- 
ders his opponents to ba 
put to death, 192; em- 
barks for Africa, 192 ; 
puts an end to his own. 
life, 193. 

Marrucini, 3. 

Mai-si, 3. 

Marsic or Social War, 17S- 
80. 

Martialis, M. Valerius, 
346. 

Masinissa, enters into 
treaty with Scipio, 101 ; 
assists Scipio, 103 ; aids 
Scipio to defeat Hasdru- 
bal and Syphax, 103 ; 
marries, and soon after- 
ward kills Sophonisba, 
103-4. 

Massilia, 287. 

Maximin, Emperor, 323. 

Maximus, Valeriu.s, 346. 

Mediterranean Sea infest- 
ed with pirates, 209. 

Memmius, C, murdered, 
174. 

Menapii defeated byCsesar, 
231. 

Menenius Agrippa, fable 
told by, 31. 

Mesopotamia added to the 
Roman empire, 329. 

Messala, M. Valerius, 286. 

Messana, 69. 

Metellus Celer, 221. 

Metellus, L., defeats the 
Carthaginians at Panur- 
mus, 73. 

Metellus (Macedonicua), 
Q.. 145. 



J60 



INDEX. 



METELLUS. i 

Metellua (Nunndicus), Q. 
C'03cilius, Consul, con- 
ducts the war in Africa 
against Jugurtha, 16(5 ; 
superseded by Marius, 
166. 

Metellus, Q., Consul, 224. 

Military Tribunes appoint- 
ed, 41. 

Mime?, 275. 

Mithridates V., king of 
Pontus, assassinated, 
1S6. 

Mithridates VT., king of 
Pontus, early life, 186; 
conquests and alliances, 
187-8 ; orders a mas- 
sacre of Romans and 
Italians in the cities of 
Asia, ISS ; defeated by 
L. Valerius Flaccus and 
by Sulla, lSS-9 ; obtain^- 
peace on hard conditions, 
189; defeats Murena on 
the Ilalys, 205 ; makes 
peace with Rome, and 
evacuates Cappadocia, 
205 ; renews the war 
with Rome, 206 ; over- 
runs Bithynia, and de- 
feats Cotta, 206 ; retreats 
before Lucullus into Pon- 
tus, 207 ; defeated by 
Lucullus at Cabira, and 
takes refuge in Arme- 
nia, 207 ; defeats Fabius^ 
andTriarius,208; unites 
with Tigranes, when tlie}' 
overrun Pontus and Cap- 
padocia, 209 ; is defeated 
byPompey, 211; escapes 
into the Cimmerian Bo.=- 
poros, 211 ; conspiracy of 
his son Pharnaces, 213 ; 
his death, 213. 

Mithridatic Wars : First, 
186-9 ; Second, 205; 
Third, 205-13. 

Moorish Dartmen, 124. 

Morini defeated by Csesar, 
231. 

Mucins Scsevola, C, 27. 

Mulvian Bridge, battle of 
the, 199. 

I^Iurena, L., invades Cap- 
p idocia and Pontus, 205; 
is opposed by Mithrida- 
tes, and defeated, 205. 



N. 

Nsevius, Cn., 273. 

Naples, Bay of, 4. 

Nasica, Scipio, 152. 

Navius, Attus, 17. 

Navy, Carthaginian, 70, 
71,72. 

Navy, Roman, 70, 71, 72, 
73. 

Neapolis attacked, 56. 

Nepos, Cornelius, 281. 

Nero and Livius, Consuls, 
defeat Hasdrubal, 97, 
98. 

Nero, 301 ; death of, 302. 

Nervii defeated by Csesar. 
230. 

Nicomedes III. driven out 
of Bithj'-nia, 187 ; re- 
stored, 188 ; again ex- 
pelled, 188 ; dies, leav- 
ing his dominions to the 
Roman people, 206. 

Nobiles^Vn (note). 

Nobility, 127-8. 

Nomen Latintim., 66. 

Nonius, A., murder of, 174. 

Norbanus, C, Consul, de- 
feated by Sulla, 191. 

Xoviis Honio^ 128 (note). 

Numa Pompilius elected 
to succeed Romulus, 12 ; 
his reign and institu- 
tions, 12. 

Numantine War, disas- 
trous till conducted by 
Scipio, 145, who cap- 
tures and destroys Nu- 
mantia, 146. 

Numerian, 326. 

Numidia, political condi- 
tion of and war in, 162- 
8. 

Numitor, 9. 



O. 

Octavian (C. Julius Caesar 
Octavianus), appointed 
heir to Csesar, 249 ; 
comes to Rome, and 
chiims the inheritance, 
254 ; collects an army, 
251 ; elected Consul, i.55; 
forms Triumvirate with 
Antony and Lepidus, 
256 ; proscriptions, 256- 
7 ; defeats Brutus at 
Philippi, 261 ; returns to 



PERPERNA. 
Rome, 203 ; reconcilia- 
tion with Autonj^, 264 ; 
his fleet destroyed by 
SextusPorapey. 265; re- 
news the Triumvirate, 
266 ; subdues the Dalma- 
tians, 267 ; rupture wMth 
Antony, 267 ; defeats 
Antony and Cleopatra 
at Actlum, 268 ; his Tri- 
umph, 270 ; Imperator 
for life, Princeps, Au- 
gustus, Pontifex Maxi- 
mus, 270 ; end of the 
Republic, 270. 

Octaviu^ See Octavian. 

Octaviui^Cn., conflict ^^ith 
Cinna, 185 ; slain, 185. 

Oppian Law repealed, 130. 

Orosius, 348. 

Ostia founded, 15. 

Ostrogoths obtain permis- 
sion to cross the Dan- 
ube, 338. 

Otho, Salvius, 302. 

Ovid banished, 293. 

Ovidius Naso, P. (poet), 
281. 



P. 

Pacuvius, M., 275. 

Palseopolis taken, 56. 

Palladius, 350. 

Palmyra, fall of, 3?5. 

Pannonia, mutiny in, 296. 

Panormus, defeat there of 
Carthaginians, 73. 

Pansa, C. "Vibius, Consul, 
defeated by Antony, and 
slain, 255. 

Papinianus, 350, 

Papius Mutilus, C, 179 ; 
defeated by Sulla, 180. 

Paterculus, Velleius, 346. 

Patres Blajortcm and 3fi- 
noruvi Gentium^ 17. 

Patricians, 12 ; struggles 
between them and the 
Plebeians, 29 ; ascend- 
ency of the Patricians, 
29. See Plebeians. 

Patronvs, 12. 

Paulus, 350. 

Peligni, 3. 

Pei-gamus, 106 ; made a 
province, 147. 

Perperna, M., re-enforces 
Sertorius in Spain, 200 ; 
becomes jealous of Ser- 
torius, and assassinates 



INDEX. 



361 



PERSEUS. I , POMPEY. 

him, 202; irf defeated hylPleMscita^ 40, 51 ; and Le- 
Ponipey, 202. | ges, 121. 

Perseus succeeds Philip as Plebs, Plebeians, origin of 



king of Miicedon, 134 ; 

defeated by L. ^mili- 

us PauUus, 135 ; death, 

136. 
Persius, 345. 
I'ertinax, Emperor, 318. 
Pescennius Niger, 319. 
Petreius, M.,2i:l. 
I'etronius Arbiter, 348. 
Phsedrus, 346. 
Pharnaces, conspiracy of, 

against Mithridate3,213; 

contirmed in possession 

of the kingdom of the 

Bosporus, 213. 
Pliilip, Emperor, 324, 
Philip v., king of Mace- 



Magnus), early life and 
career, 200-1 ; receives 
the surname of Magnus, 
201 ; sent to Spain as 
Proconsul against Serto 
rius, 201 
successes 



don, enters into a treaty Pompey ((Jn._ Pomp'eius 

■with Hannibal, 107 ; ap- 
pears in the Adriatic 

with a fleet, and laj's 

siege to Oricus and Apol- 

lonia,107; takes Oricus, 

but is driven from Apol- 

lonia, and burns his 

fleet, 107 ; in alliance 

with the Acliseans, and 

at peace with the ^to- 

lians and Romans, 108 ; 

assists Hannibal at Za- 

ma, 108 ; attacks tlie 

Rhodians and Attains, 

king of Pergamns, 108 ; 

treats with Antiochus 

for the partition of 

Egypt, 108 ; besieges 

Athens, which is re- 
lieved by a Roman fleet, 

108 ; sues for peace after 

his defeat in the battle 

of Cynoscephalge, 109 

refuses to take part with 

Antiochus against th 

Romans, 110 ; his death, 

134. 
Ihoenicians, 6S. 
1 halanx, 122. 
Phraates, king of the Par. 

thians, 291. 
Picenum, 2. 
Piracy in the Mediterrane 

an suppressed by Pom 

pey, 210. 
Piso, (Jn. Calpurnms, 218. 
Placentia taken and de- 
stroyed, 113. 
Plautia Papiria, Lex, ISO, 
Plautu3,T. Maccius, 27;-'. 



PROCONSULS. 
Caesar, 239 ; measures in 
opposition to Caesar, 239- 
40 ; invested by the Sen- 
ate with command of 
the army, 240 ; retreats 
before Caesar, 242 ; em- 
barks ■ for Greece, 242 ; 
besieged by Caesar at Dyr- 
rhachium, 244 ; forces 
Caesar to retreat, 244 ; 
defeated by Caesar at 
Pharsalia, 246 ; flies to 
Egypt, 245 ; slain there, 
245. 
Pompey, Sextus,in alliance 
with M. Antony, 264 ; 
master of the sea, 264 ; 
forms alliance with Oc- 
tavian and Antony, 264; 
rupture of the alliance, 
265; defeats Octavian's 
fleet, 265; his own fleet 
defeated by M. Agrippa, 
266; is taken prisoner, 
and put to death at Mi- 
letus, 266. 
failures and Pontiffs, 12, 51. 
201 ; deftats Pontine Marshes, 4. 



the, 14 ; sufi"erings of the, 
30 ; Ager Publicus, 30 ; 
secession of Plebeians to 
the Sacred Mount, 31 ; 
institution of Tribunes 
of the Plebs, 31 ; Agra- 
rian Law introduced by 
Sp. Cassius, 31. 

Pliny, Secundus Major, 
349. 

Poeni, 68 (note). 

PoUio, Asinius, 2S6. 

Pomcerium, 9, 20. 

Pompaedius Silo, Q., 178. 

Pompeiopolis, 210. 

Pompeius Strabo, Cn 
Social War, ISO. 



m 



Perperna, 202 ; concludes 
the war, 202 ; elected 
Consul, with Crassus, 
203 ; restores the Tribu- 
nitian power, 203; sup- 
presses piracy in the 
Mediterranean, 210; su- 
persedes LucuUus in the 
East, 211 ; defeats Mith- 
ridates in Lesser Arme- 
nia, 211 ; receives the 
submission of Tigranes, 
212 ; his conquests in 
Syria and Palestine, 212- 
13; returns to Italy, 213; 
his Triumph, 223 ; Sen- 
ate refuses to sanction 
his measures in Asia, 
224, but afterward rati- 
fies them, 225 ; forms 
cabal with Caesar and 
Crassus (first Triumvi- 
rate), 225; marries Cae- 
sar's daughter Julia, 225; 
meets Caesar and Cras- 
sus at Luca, 236; Con- 
sul with Crassus, 236 ; 
obtains government of 
Spain, 236; bis new the- 
atre at Rome opened 
236; his wife Julia dies 
237 ; elected sole Consul 
23S; becomes hostile to 



Pontius, C. , defeats the Ro- 
mans, 57, 58 ; is defeat- 
ed and put to death, 
59. 

Pontius, the Samnite, 193. 

Pontus, 106 ; kingdom of, 
186 ; made a Roman 
province, 212. 

PorciusCato, M. SeeCato. 

Populus Romanus, 14. 

Porsena, Lars, marches 
against Rome in aid of 
Tarquin, 26 ; bridge de- 
fended by Horatius Co- 
des, 26; C. Mucins Scae- 
vola, 27 ; Cloelia swims 
across the Tiber, 27 ; 
Porsena withdraws his 
army, 27 ; war with the 
Latins, 28 ; battle of the 
Lake Regillus, 28 ; death 
of Tarquinius Superbus, 
28. 

Praeneste surrenders, 193. 

Piaetor Peregrinus, 117. 

Praetors, afterward called 
Consuls, 25. 

Praetors and Praetorship, 
50,117. 

Phnci}n'.% 122. 

Privernum, conquest of, 56. 

Pi'obus, Emperor, 326. 

Proconsuls, 118. 



362 



INDEX. 



PROPERTIUS. 

Propertiu.^, f^extus Aure- 
lius (poet), 2S0. 

Propi'EBtor.-:, lis. 

Pro.scri2>iio^ what it was, 
193. 

Provinces, Roman, 147. 

Provoc itio^ 121 (note). 

Prusias, king of Bithynia, 
shelters Hannibal, llil. 

Publilian Law, 31 (note), 
86. 

Publilian Law.s, 51. 

Publicani, 119 (note). 

Pulchei'ia, 351. 

Punic War, First, 68-76 ; 
Second, 82-l(i5. 

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 
assists the Tarentines, 
62 ; defeats the Romans 
near Ileraclea, 62 ; sends 
Cineas to negotiate a 
peace, 63; terms reject- 
ed, 63 ; takes Prseneste, 
63; winter quarters at 
Tarentum, 63 ; embassy 
of Fabricius, 6.'! ; propo- 
sal to poison Pyrrhus, 
64 ; releases Roman pris- 
oners without ransom, 
64 : crosses over into 
Sicily, 64; is repulsed at 
Lilybseiim, 64 ; return 
to Italy, 64 ; seizes the 
treasures of the temple 
of Proserpine at Locri, 
65; his remorse, 65 ; is 
defeated at Beneventum, 
65 ; returns to Greece, 
and is slain, 65. 



QucesHo Perpetua^ 197. 
QufBstors and Qusestorship, 

42, IIT. 
Quintilianus, M. Fabius 

348. 
Quintius, P., speech of Cic 

ero for, 216. 
Qiiirites^ 11 (note). 

R. 

Rabirius,C.,219. 

Ramnes, 12. 

Rasena, 5. 

Regillus, Lake, battle of, 28. 

Regulus, M. Atilius, de 
feats the Carthaginians, 
72; is defeated by Xan 
thippus, 73. 



ROME. I 

Regulus, M. Atilius, sent, 
as prisoner, with an em- 
bassy to Rome, 73, 74; 
advises the Senate to re- 
ject the terms, 74 ; re- 
turns, and is put to 
death, 74. 

Remus and Romulus, 9 ; 
Remus slain, 10. 

Repetimdce, 128 (note). 

Republic established at 
Rome, 25 ; end of, 270. 

Rhea Silvia, legend of, 8. 

Rhodes, 107 ; school of 
rhetoric at, 215. 

Rogatio and Lcx^ 49 (note). 

Roma Quadrata, 9. 

Roman Literature, sketch 
of, 272-285; Poetry: Sa- 
turnian Metre and the 
Drama, 272 ; M. Livius 
Andronicus, 272, 273 ; 
Cn. Nsevius, 273 ; Q. En- 
nius, 273 ; T. Maccius 
Plautus, 273 ; I'. Teren- 
tius Afer, 274 ; Q. Caicil- 
ius, L. Afranius, 274 ; 
M. Paciivius, 275; L. 
Accius, 275 ; Atellance 
Fabulce, Mimes^ 275 ; 
Dec. Laberius, P. Syrus, 
275 ; Fescennine Songs, 
276 : Satires, 276 ; (J. 
Lucilius, 276 ; T. Lucre- 
tius Cams, 276 ; Vale- 
rius Catullus, 276 ; P. 
Virgilius Maro, 277; Q. 
Horatius Flaccus, 278 ; 
Albius Tibullns, 280 ; 
Sextus Aurelius Proper- 
tins, 28r) ; P. Ovidius 
Naso, 281. Prose Writ- 
ers — Q. Fabius Pictor, 
282 ; L. Cincius Alimen- 
tus, 282 ; M. Porcius 
Cato, 282 ; M. Tullius 
Cicero, 282 ; M. Teren- 
tius Varro, 283 ; C. Ju- 
lius Caesar, 283, C. Sal- 
lustius Crispus, 284 ; 
Cornelius Nepos, 284 ; 
Titus Livius, 284. 

Rome, situation and first 
inhabitants, 7 ; legends 
and early history, 8 ; 
first four kings, 9-15; 
last three kings, 16-28 ; 
foundation of, 9 ; de- 
stroyed by the Goths 
(Senones) under Bren 
nus, 47 ; rebuilt, 48 



SAMNITES. 

pestilence at, 52 ; sacked 
by Alaric, 341. 

Romulus, birth of, 9; slays 
Remus, 10; rape of Sa- 
bine virgins, 10 ; war 
with Sabines, 10 ; reigns 
conjointly with Titus Ta- 
tius, 11 ; succeeds T. Ta- 
tius as ruler of the Sa- 
bines, and thus becomes 
sole ruler, 11 ; his death, 
11 ; institutions, 12. 

Romulus Augustus, 343. 

Rorarii, 123. 

Rufinus, 339. 

Rufus, Q. Curtius, 347. 

Rullus (Tribune), 219. 

Rupilius, P., captures Tau- 
romenium and Enna, 
and ends the First Ser- 
vile War, 147. 

Rutilius Rufus found 
guilty and banished, 
175. 

Rutilius Lupus, P., Con- 
sul, 179 ; defeated and 
slain, 179. 

S. 

Sabellians, 3. 

Sabine virgins, rape of, 10. 

Sabini, 3, 11 (note).* 

Sacred Mount, first seces- 
sion to, 31 ; second se- 
cession, 39. 

Sacrovir, 297. 

Saguntum captured, 81. 

Salii, priests of Mars, 13. 

Sallustius Crispus, C, 234. 

Salvius, leader of the slaves 
in Sicily, 172 ; assumes 
the surname of Tryphon, 
172. 

Salvus Julianus, 350. 

Samuites, history, 53 ; 
tribes, 53 ; conquer Cam- 
pania and Lucania, 53 ; 
attack the Sidicini and 
Campanians, 53 ; enter 
into war with the Ro- 
mans, 54 ; are defeated 
at Mount Gaurus, 54 ; 
peace 54 ; second or 
Great War with the Ro- 
mans, 57 ; quarrel be- 
tween Q. Fabius Maxi- 
mus and L. Papirius (.^ur- 
sor, 57 : Samnite gener- 
al, C. Pontius, defeats 
the Romans at the Cau- 



INDEX. 



363 



SAMNIUM. 

dine Forks, 57, 5S ; treaty 
rejected by the Uomans, 
5S ; succes^^es of the Ko- 
mans, and peace, 5S ; 
third war, 5.» ; battle of 
Sentinum, 6d ; defeat, 
and peace, 59. 

Saranium and Samnites, 
4. 

Sapor, king of Persia, 336. 

Sardinia obtained from 
Carthage, and fonned 
into a lioman province, 
77; revolt in, 115; Prae- 
tor for, lis. 

Satires, Roman, 276. 

Saturnian Metre, 272. 

Saturninus elected Tri- 
bune, 174 ; brings in an 
Agrarian Law, 174 ; 
murders Memmius, 174; 
is declared a public ene- 
my, 174; pelted to death 
with tiled by the mob, 
175. 

Scipio, Cneius, in Spain, 
95 ; slain there, 95. 

Scipio, P. (Jornelius, 
marches to oppose Han- 
nibal, S3 ; killed in 
Spain, 95. 

Scipio Africanus Major, P. 
Cornelius, his early life, 
99 ; elected Proconsul, 
and goes to Spain, 100 ; 
captur.s New Carthag.-, 
100 ; defeats Hasdrubal, 
101 ; master of nearly 
all Spain, by a victory 
(place uncertain), 101; 
crosses over to Africa, 
101; quells insurrection 
and mutiny in Spain, 

101 ; captures Gades, 

102 ; returns to Rome, 
and is elected Consul, 
102 ; passes over to Sici- 
ly, and thence to Africa, 
103 ; besieges Utica, 103 ; 
is opposed by Hasdrubal 
and Syphax, whom he 
defeats, 103 ; defeats 
Hannibal near Zama, 
104; returns to Rome, 
105; prosecuted, 131; re- 
tires from Rome, 131 ; 
death, 131. 

Scipio Africanus Minor, 
140 ; captures and de- 
stroys Carthage, 142 ; 
sent to Spain, 145; op- 



SICILY. 
poses Ti. Gracchus, 153 ; 
found dead in his room, 
153. 

Scipio, L. Cornelius (Asi- 
aticus) appointed to the 
command against Anti- 
ochus, who had invaded 
the kingdom of Perga- 
mus. Ill; defeats Anti- 
ochus near Magnesia, 
and returns to Rome, 
111; prosecution of, 130. 

Scipio Nasica, P. Corne- 
lius, subdues the Boii, 
114. 

Sempi-onian Laws, 157. 

Senate, 12, 119. 

Senators bribed by Jugur- 
tha found guilty by a 
commission, 164. 

S''nafuy; Cormiltum^ 120. 

Seneca, 301; his writings. 
349. 

Seneca, M. Anngeus, 348. 

Senones, 45. 

Septimius i^everus, Empe 
ror, 3-'0; penetrates to 
the interior of Scotland 
321. 

Sertorius Macro, 299. 

Sertorius, Q. , in Spain, 200 
defeats Q. Metellus, 200 ; 
is opposed to Pompey 
201 ; assassinated by 
Perperna, 202. 

Servile War at Carthage, 
77. 

Servile War in Sicily, 
First, 146-7 ; Second, 
suppressed by M. Aquil- 
lius, 172. 

Servilius, Q., murdered, 
17S. 

Servius Tullius, succeeds 
Tarquinius Priscus, IS ; 
reforms the constitution, 
and divides the terri- 
tory, IS ; increases the 
city, and surrounds it 
witli a wall, 20 ; forms 
an alliance with the Lat- 
ins, 20; his death, 22; 
his two daughters, 22. 

Seven hills of Rome, 20 
(note). 

Sextius, L , first Plebeian 
Consul, 50. 

Sicily invaded by the Ro- 
mans, 69-71 ; made sub- 
ject to the Romans, ex- 
cept Syracuse, 76 ; Prse- 



SULLA. 
tor for, US; unler Au- 
gustus, 2S7. 

Sicinius Dentatus slain, 38. 

Sidicini, 53. 

Silanus, 297. 

Slaves under the Romans, 
146. 

Social War, or Marsic War, 
178-180. 

Socii, or Allies, 66; troops 
furnished by, 123. 

Sociorum Pi cefecti^ 123. 

Soli, afterward Pompeiopo- 
lis, occupied by pirate?, 
210. 

Spain in two provinces, 
114; Pra?tors for, H8; 
under Augustus, 287. 

Spanish Wars, 143-146. 

Sparta, l(i7. 

Spartacup, a gladiator, ex- 
cites an insurrection of 
slaves, 202 ; devastates 
Italy with a large army 
of slaves, 203 ; defeated 
by Crassus, 203 ; slain in 
battle, 203. 

Sjiolia opitna won by A. 
Cornelius Cossus, 43. 

Statins, P. Papinius, 344. 

Stilicho, D39. 

St. Chrysostom, 341. 

Siifetes, 68. 

Suila, C. Cornelius, early 
life and character, 167; 
Quaestor with Marius in 
Africa, 168; gains over 
Bocchus, and entraps 
and makes a prisoner of 
Jugurtha, 167 ; in Social 
War, 180 ; Consul, ISl ; 
rivalry with Mi.rius, 182; 
enters Rome with his 
army, and takes posses- 
sion of the city, 183 ; 
leaves Rome for the East, 
1S4 ; plunders Athens, 
188 ; victory at Orcho- 
menus,lS9; makes peace 
with Mithridates, 189 ; 
overcomes Fimbria, 1S9; 
defeats tlie younger Ma- 
rius, and enters Rome, 
192 ; battle with the 
Samnites and Lucanians 
for the possession of 
Rome, 192 ; Allies de- 
feated, 193 ; elected Dic- 
tator, 193 : his massacres 
and proscriptions, 194 ; 
elected Consul, 194; his 



364 



INDEX. 



SULPICIUS RUFUS. 
Triumph, and assumed 
title of l-'elix, 194 ; his 
military colonies, 194, 
195 ; his reforms, 194, 
195 ; resignation of Dic- 
tatorship, retirement, 
and death, 195 ; his leg- 
islation, 196-198. 

Sulpicius Rufus, P., sells 
himself to Marius, 182; 
put to death, 183. 

Supplicatio^ 125. 

Synorium, fortress of, 211. 

Syphax, at Avar with Car- 
thage, 95, is visited by 
Scipio, but, falling in love 
•with Sophonisba, daugh- 
ter of Hasdrubal, be- 
comes an ally of the Car- 
thaginians, 101 ; defeat- 
ed by Scipio and Masi- 
nissa, and flies into Nu- 
midia, 103 ; is pursued 
and taken prisoner by 
Lselius and Masinissa, 
103. 

Syracuse captui'ed by Mar- 
cellus, 94. 

Syria, condition of, 106 ; 
made a Roman province, 
212. 

Syr us, P., 2T5. 



Tacitus, Emperor, 326. 

Tacitus, the historian, 346. 

Tarentum, 60, 62 ; cap- 
tured, 65. 

Tarpeia, 10. 

Tarquinius Priscus, Lu- 
cius, his birth and de- 
scent, 16 ; elected 5th 
king of Rome, 16; de- 
feats the Sabines and 
captures Collatia, 16 ; 
takes also many Latin 
towns, and becomes ruler 
of all Latium, 16; con- 
structs the cloacae, 16 ; 
lays out the Circus Max- 
imus, and institutes the 
games of the Circus, IT ; 
increases the Senate, the 
l'4uites, and the Vestal 
Virgins, IT ; appoints 
Servius Tullius his suc- 
cessor, 18 ; his reign and 
death, 13. 

Tarquinius Superbus, Lu- 
cius, succeeds Servius 



TRIARIUS, 

Tullius, 22; his tyran 
ny, 22; alliance with the 
Latins, 22 ; war with the 
Volscians,23; founds the 
temple named the Capi- 
tolium, 23 ; purchases 
the three Sybilline books, 
23 ; attacks and captures 
Gabii, 23 ; sends to con 
suit the oracle at Delphi, 
23 ; besieges Ardea, 24 ; 
Lucre tia ravished by Sex 
tus Tarquinius, 24; death 
of Lucretia, 25 ; is ex- 
pelled from Rome with 
his sons, 25 ; attempts to 
regain the throne, 25 
liis Etruscan allies de 
feated, 26 ; dies at Cu- 
mse, 28. 

Terentius Afer, P., 2T4. 

Teutones and Ambrones 
enter France, in march 
for Italy, ITO ; defeated 
and destroyed by Marius. 
ITl. 

Theodosius, Emperor, 339. 

Thurii, 60. 

Tiberius, 291 ; divorced 
from his wife, 292 ; sue 
ceeds Augustus, 295; re 
tires to Caprese, 298 : 
death, 299. 

TibuUus, Albius (poet), 
280. 

Tigranes, king of Armenia, 
receives his father-in-law 
Mithridates, 20T ; defeat- 
ed by LucuUus at Tigra 
nocerta, 208 ; acts in 
concert with Mithrida 
tes, 209; submits toPom 
pey, 212. 

Tigranes the younger re- 
volts against his father, 
212. 

Tities, 12. 

Titus takes Jerusalem, 
303 ; emperor, 304. 

Trajanus Decius, Empe- 
ror, 324. . > 

Trajanus, M. Ulpius, Em- 
peror, SOT ; conflict with 
the Dacians, 808 ; leads 
an army into Assyria, 
308; death, 309. 

Trasimenus, Lake, Roman 
army destroyed at, 86. 

Triarn\ 123. 

Triarius defeated by Mith- 
ridates, 208. 



VEIL 

Tribes, Assembly of the, 

121. 
Tribunes, 31, IIT, 121. 
T]ibuneship degraded by 

Sulla's laws, 19T. 
Tiibuni Militum^ 123. 
Tributum, a property-tax, 

Triumph, the general's, 
124. 

Triumvirate, First, 225 ; 
Second, 256. 

Triumviri vi.sit Greece to 
inquire into the laws, 
3T. 

Tullianum (dungeon), 221. 

TuUus Hostilius elected to 
succeed Numa, 13 ; bat- 
tle of the Horatii and 
Curia tii, 13 ; conquers 
the Albans, 14 ; con- 
quers the Etruscans, 14; 
punishes Mettius Fuflfe- 
tiu.«, 14 ; destroys Alba 
Longa, and removes in- 
habitants to Rome, 14 ; 
his reign and death, 14. 

Turmce, 123. 

Twelve Tables, 38. 

U. 

Ulphilas, 338. 

Ulpianus, 350. 

Umbria, 2. 

Umbrians in league with 

the Etruscans, 59. 
Umbro-Sabellians, 5. 



V. 

Vadimo, Lake, defeat of 
Gauls and Etruscans 
there, 60. 

Valentinian, Emperor, 338. 

Valentinian III., 342. 

Valerian and Horatian 
Laws, 40. 

Valerian, Emperor, 324. 

Valerius, Corvus, M., le- 
gend of, 48. 

Valerius Publicola, 26. 

Vandals invited into Af- 
rica, 342 ; plunder Rome, 
342. 

Varro, M. Terentius, 283. 

Varus, 291. 

Veefigalia, 121. 

Veii besieged, 43 ; Alban 
Lake, 43 ; city captured, 
44. 



INDEX. 



365 



VELITES. 

Velites, 123. 

Veneti defeated by Gsesar, 
231. 

Veutidius, Tribune and 
Consul, 265; his success- 
ful wars against the Par- 
thian?, 265. 

Vercingetorix defeated and 
taken prisoner, 234. 

Verus, L., 314,315. 

Vestal Virgins, 13, 17. 

IVsfm?, 3. 

Veto of the Tribunes, 31, 
121. 



VOLTURCIUS. 

Vettius, L., accuses Caesar, 
222, • is thrown into pris- 
on, 222. 

Vfixillarius, 122. 

Via ..(Emilia, Appia, Fla- 
minina, 114, 119. 

Victor, Aurelius, 34T. 

Viriathus, 144; assassina- 
ted, 145. 

VirgiliusMaro, P.,277. 

Volgeses III., -king of the 
Parthians, 314. 

Volturcius, T., 220. 



W. 
Wallia, 341. 

X. 

Xanthippus, 72, 73. 



Zenobia, queen of Palmy- 
ra, 325. 




Coin of Augustus. 



THE END. 



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